Anne Niknejad Aurelie Comte Homology axioms derived from vHOG Uberon bridge to vhog Uberon editors http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/uberon/references/reference_0000026 derived by descent from homologous to ancestor: brain ventricular system 'The early development of most vertebrate brains is similar (...). The zebrafish neural tube follows the same basic differentiation pattern as the mammalian neural tube (reference 1); The brain develops from three embryonic enlargements of the neural tube, which later differentiate into five regions. A forebrain differentiates into telencephalon and diencephalon. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, remains undivided. The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Cavities within the brain enlarge to form a series of interconnected ventricles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.381-382', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.500'] ancestor: fourth ventricle 'The early development of most vertebrate brains is similar (...). The zebrafish neural tube follows the same basic differentiation pattern as the mammalian neural tube (reference 1); The brain develops from three embryonic enlargements of the neural tube, which later differentiate into five regions. A forebrain differentiates into telencephalon and diencephalon. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, remains undivided. The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Cavities within the brain enlarge to form a series of interconnected ventricles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.381-382', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.500'] ancestor: third ventricle 'The early development of most vertebrate brains is similar (...). The zebrafish neural tube follows the same basic differentiation pattern as the mammalian neural tube (reference 1); The brain develops from three embryonic enlargements of the neural tube, which later differentiate into five regions. A forebrain differentiates into telencephalon and diencephalon. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, remains undivided. The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Cavities within the brain enlarge to form a series of interconnected ventricles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.381-382', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.500'] ancestor: diencephalon meninges 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: telencephalon meninges 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: hindbrain meninges 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: midbrain meninges 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: brain meninges 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: extraembryonic vitelline vein 'Within each vertebrate group, the veins compose a few main functional systems that arise embryologically from what seems to be a common developmental pattern.(...)Early in development, three major sets of paired veins are present: the vitelline veins from the yolk sac, the cardinal veins from the body of the embryo itself, and the lateral abdominal veins from the pelvic region. The paired vitelline veins are among the first vessels to appear in the embryo. They arise over the yolk and follow the yolk stalk into the body. They then turn anteriorly, continue along the gut, and enter the sinus venosus.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460'] ancestor: extraembryonic umbilical vein Two umbilical arteries and one vein are characters of the common ancestor of living placental mammals. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: nasal septum 'Whatever the common ancestor of the lamprey and gnathostomes may have looked like, it most likely possessed a neural-crest-derived premandibular ectomesenchyme closely associated with the NHP. Invention of the jaw subsequently required a space for the nasal septum and maxillary process to develop, which might have been provided by subdivision of the NHP into the nasal placode and the hypophysis (diplorhiny, the state of bilaterally separated nasal openings, would also have been a prerequisite for this).' [DOI:10.1098/rstb.2001.0976 'Kuratani S, Nobusada Y, Horigome N, Shigetani Y, Embryology of the lamprey and evolution of the vertebrate jaw: insights from molecular and developmental perspectives. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London (2001)'] ancestor: urorectal septum 'In mammals the lowly monotremes still have a cloaca. Higher types have done away with this structure and have a separate anal outlet for the rectum. The monotreme cloaca shows the initiation of this subdivision. The cloaca has such includes only the distal part, roughly comparable to the proctodeum. The more proximal part is divided into (1) a large dorsal passage into which the intestine opens, the coprodeum, and (2) a ventral portion, the urodeum with which the bladder connects. (...) the development of the placental mammals recapitulates in many respects the phylogenetic story. In the sexually indifferent stage of placental mammal there is a cloaca. While the indifferent stage still persists, a septum develops, and extends out to the closing membrane. This divides the cloaca into two chambers: a coprodeum continuous with the gut above, and a urodeum or urogenital sinus below.' [ISBN:978-0721676678 'Romer AS, Vertebrate body (1970) p.388-89 and Figure 300'] ancestor: septum transversum 'In hagfishes a transverse septum extends upward from the ventral body wall posterior to the heart, partly separating an anterior pericardial cavity from a larger peritoneal cavity. (...) These basic relationships have not been modified by urodeles. The small pericardial cavity remains far forward where it is separated by a transverse septum from the principal coelom, which may now be called a pleuroperitoneal cavity because slender lungs are present. (...) The heart (of other tetrapods) is separated from the lungs (and liver if present) by more or less horizontal partitions that have their origin in the embryo as folds on the serous membrane of the right and left lateral body walls. These grow out to join in the midline of the body. They are called lateral mesocardia (birds) or pleuropericardial membranes. Posteriorly they join the transverse septum to form the adult pericardial membrane, or pericardium. (...) In their partitioning of their coelom, embryonic mammals resemble first early fishes (incomplete partition, posterior to heart, consisting of the transverse septum) and then reptiles (pericardium derived from transverse septum and pleuropericardial membranes) Mammals then separate paired pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity by a diaphragm. The ventral portion of this organ comes from the transverse septum. The dorsal portion is derived from the dorsal mesentery and from still another pair of outgrowths from the lateral body wall, the pleuroperitoneal membranes.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.205-206'] ancestor: septum primum 'The tetrapod clade develops a complete atrial septum and loses the fifth aortic arch altogether.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: septum secundum 'The tetrapod clade develops a complete atrial septum and loses the fifth aortic arch altogether.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: prosencephalon lateral wall Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: telencephalon lateral wall Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: cerebellum 'However, although the lamprey possesses a region comparable to the cerebellum and display expression of LjFgf8/17 at the MHB (midbrain hindbrain boundary), it does not have Purkinje cells and cerebellar nuclei, as well as components of the rhombic lip-derived cerebellar and pre-cerebellar systems. It is noteworthy that the latter structures require specific expression of Pax6 in the rhombic lip of the gnathostome hindbrain. Interestingly, the lamprey rhombic lip does not express Pax6. Thus, it is tempting to speculate that in vertebrate evolution the rostral hindbrain is incapable of differentiating into the cerebellum before the co-option of Pax6 in that region. In other words, cerebellum has been brought about as an evolutionary innovation in gnathostomes, based on exaptation of MHB, rhombic lip, and some regulatory gene expression already present in the vertebrate common ancestor.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.02.008 'Murakami Y, Uchida K, Rijli FM and Kuratani S, Evolution of the brain developmental plan: Insights from agnathans. Developmental Biology (2005)'] ancestor: olfactory bulb 'The presence of paired evaginated hemispheres and olfactory bulbs in both agnathan and gnathostome radiations suggests that such hemispheres were also present in the common ancestor.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.ne.04.030181.001505 'Northcutt RG, Evolution of the telencephalon in nonmammals. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. (1981)'] ancestor: pronephros 'In all vertebrate embryos, the kidney begins with the differentiation of a few renal tubules from the anterior end of the nephric ridge overlying the pericardial cavity. (...) This early-developing embryonic kidney is called the pronephros.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.637'] ancestor: mesonephros 'As the pronephros regresses, the archinephric duct induces the sequential differentiation of tubules in the more caudal parts of the nephric ridge. (...) Tubules that differentiate in the middle part of the nephric ridge form a kidney called the mesonephros. This kidney functions in the embryos and larvae of all vertebrates. (...) In all vertebrate embryos, the kidney begins with the differentiation of a few renal tubules from the anterior end of the nephric ridge overlying the pericardial cavity. (...) This early-developing embryonic kidney is called the pronephros.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.639'] ancestor: metanephros 'The ureteric diverticulum grows dorsally into the posterior region of the nephric ridge. Here it enlarges and stimulates the growth of metanephric tubules that come to make up the metanephric kidney. The metanephros becomes the adult kidney of amniotes.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.543'] ancestor: exocrine pancreas 'In the hagfish and lampreys (our most primitive vertebrate species of today), the first sign of 'a new organ' is found as collections of endocrine cells around the area of the bile duct connection with the duodenum. These endocrine organs are composed of 99% beta cells and 1% somatostatin-producing delta cells. Compared to the more primitive protochordates (e.g. amphioxus), this represents a stage where all previously scattered insulin-producing cells of the intestinal tissue have now quantitatively migrated to found a new organ involved in sensing blood glucose rather than gut glucose. Only later in evolution, the beta cells are joined by exocrine tissue and alpha cells (exemplified by the rat-, rabbit- and elephant-fishes). Finally, from sharks and onwards in evolution, we have the islet PP-cell entering to complete the pancreas.' [DOI:10.1016/j.crvi.2007.03.006 'Madsen OD, Pancreas phylogeny and ontogeny in relation to a 'pancreatic stem cell'. C.R. Biologies (2007)'] ancestor: endocrine pancreas 'In the hagfish and lampreys (our most primitive vertebrate species of today), the first sign of 'a new organ' is found as collections of endocrine cells around the area of the bile duct connection with the duodenum. These endocrine organs are composed of 99% beta cells and 1% somatostatin-producing delta cells. Compared to the more primitive protochordates (e.g. amphioxus), this represents a stage where all previously scattered insulin-producing cells of the intestinal tissue have now quantitatively migrated to found a new organ involved in sensing blood glucose rather than gut glucose. Only later in evolution, the beta cells are joined by exocrine tissue and alpha cells (exemplified by the rat-, rabbit- and elephant-fishes). Finally, from sharks and onwards in evolution, we have the islet PP-cell entering to complete the pancreas.' [DOI:10.1016/j.crvi.2007.03.006 'Madsen OD, Pancreas phylogeny and ontogeny in relation to a 'pancreatic stem cell'. C.R. Biologies (2007)'] ancestor: pancreas 'In the hagfish and lampreys (our most primitive vertebrate species of today), the first sign of 'a new organ' is found as collections of endocrine cells around the area of the bile duct connection with the duodenum. These endocrine organs are composed of 99% beta cells and 1% somatostatin-producing delta cells. Compared to the more primitive protochordates (e.g. amphioxus), this represents a stage where all previously scattered insulin-producing cells of the intestinal tissue have now quantitatively migrated to found a new organ involved in sensing blood glucose rather than gut glucose. Only later in evolution, the beta cells are joined by exocrine tissue and alpha cells (exemplified by the rat-, rabbit- and elephant-fishes). Finally, from sharks and onwards in evolution, we have the islet PP-cell entering to complete the pancreas.' [DOI:10.1016/j.crvi.2007.03.006 'Madsen OD, Pancreas phylogeny and ontogeny in relation to a 'pancreatic stem cell'. C.R. Biologies (2007)'] ancestor: pineal gland 'The pineal gland has evolved from a part of the epiphyseal complex of anamniotes, which includes a median light-receptive pineal eye, parietal eye, or both.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.516'] ancestor: duodenum [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.567 and Figure 17-3 p.562'] ancestor: jejunum [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.567 and Figure 17-4 p.562'] ancestor: large intestine 'Intestinal surface area also is increased in amphibians and reptiles by internal folds and occasionally by a few villi. The intestine can be divided into a small intestine and a slightly wider large intestine.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.566'] ancestor: small intestine 'Intestinal surface area also is increased in amphibians and reptiles by internal folds and occasionally by a few villi. The intestine can be divided into a small intestine and a slightly wider large intestine.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.566'] ancestor: intestine [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43 and Figure 2-11 p.42'] ancestor: neural crest 'We conclude that the neural crest is a vertebrate novelty, but that neural crest cells and their derivatives evolved and diversified in a step-wise fashion - first by elaboration of neural plate border cells, then by the innovation or co-option of new or ancient metazoan cell fates.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01495.x 'Hall BK, Gillis JA, Incremental evolution of the neural crest, neural crest cells and neural crest-derived skeletal tissues. J Anat (2012)'] ancestor: trunk neural crest 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: cranial neural crest 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: neural plate ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: midbrain 'Fine structural, computerized three-dimensional (3D) mapping of cell connectivity in the amphioxus nervous system and comparative molecular genetic studies of amphioxus and tunicates have provided recent insights into the phylogenetic origin of the vertebrate nervous system. The results suggest that several of the genetic mechanisms for establishing and patterning the vertebrate nervous system already operated in the ancestral chordate and that the nerve cord of the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates included a diencephalon, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: hindbrain 'Fine structural, computerized three-dimensional (3D) mapping of cell connectivity in the amphioxus nervous system and comparative molecular genetic studies of amphioxus and tunicates have provided recent insights into the phylogenetic origin of the vertebrate nervous system. The results suggest that several of the genetic mechanisms for establishing and patterning the vertebrate nervous system already operated in the ancestral chordate and that the nerve cord of the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates included a diencephalon, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: cranial ganglion [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.456-457 and Figure 13-18'] ancestor: epidermis ' (...) outer epithelia in all metazoan animals are homologous. (...) The ancestor of all metazoans likely had an epidermis with a basal extracellular matrix (ECM), an apical extracellular glycocalyx, and one cilium with a striated rootlet per cell.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.71-72'] ancestor: hypochord 'In other words, we identified variations in gene expression patterns that may contribute to a molecular basis of evolutionary variation of axial structures between Teleostei and Mammalia in the determination of body axis. As already mentioned, one such difference is illustrated by the hypochord present in lower vertebrates but absent in higher animals. Perhaps, Tbx-b and Tbx-c are involved in the mechanisms underlying the formation of this organ that were lost during later evolution leading to the disappearance of the hypochord itself, similarly to other organs, such as the lateral line.' [PMID:11548409 'Korzh VP, T-box genes and developmental decisions that cells make. Russian Journal of Developmental Biology (2001)'] ancestor: archinephric duct ' (...) in all craniates, the archinephric duct develops in embryogeny.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.686'] ancestor: heart myocardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: heart endocardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: blood island 'Small clusters of mesodermal cells called blood islands mark the embryonic debut of the cardiovascular system (in vertebrates) (reference 1); In birds and mammals, primitive hemangioblasts are extraembryonic, populating the yolk sac as the so-called blood islands (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450', DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.22.010605.093317 'Hartenstein V, Blood cells and blood cell development in the animal kingdom. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology (2006)'] ancestor: prechordal plate 'There are two opposing models that can potentially explain the differences in gsc (goosecoid) expression between amphioxus and vertebrates. In one model, the vertebrate gsc expression pattern more closely resembles the common ancestral state and the amphioxus gsc expression pattern is a derivation associated with its unique morphology. (...) In an alternate model, the amphioxus gsc expression pattern most closely represents the common ancestral state and the vertebrate pattern is derived. This model suggests that the evolution of vertebrates was accompanied by the segregation of gsc expression, from a more general domain underlying the entire brain anlage to a distinct forebrain organizer domain and subsequent prechordal plate. We feel this second model is more parsimonious than the first model in that what would be novel anterior gsc expression in vertebrates directly correlates with a novel vertebrate anterior structure, the prechordal plate.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00073.x 'Neidert AH, Panopoulou G and Langeland JA, Amphioxus goosecoid and the evolution of the head organizer and prechordal plate. Evolution and Development (2008)'] ancestor: intermediate mesoderm '(...)the mesoderm of a developing vertebrate transitionally differentiates into the following sub-types: Chordamesoderm (also known as axial mesoderm) which later on gives rise to notochord in all chordates, Paraxial mesoderm, Intermediate mesoderm, Lateral plate mesoderm (reference 1); The mesoderm is present in Bilateria, therefore they are sometimes called triploblasts. Ectoderm and endoderm are usually organized as epithelial layers, while mesoderm can be epithelial or a compact, three-dimensional tissue.' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoderm, ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.43'] ancestor: ciliary marginal zone 'The retina of all vertebrates develops via similar mechanisms. Toward the end of retinal histogenesis, proliferating progenitors and newly generated cells are confined to peripheral regions of the retina. In fish and amphibians, this region is maintained after embryonic development and becomes the CMZ (ciliary margin zone). A CMZ exists in birds but compared to that of fish and amphibians this region produces much less new retina as the globe of the eye expands postnatally. At least some of the molecular mechanisms that regulate the addition of new cells in this zone appear to have been conserved from fish to birds.' [DOI:10.1159/000057571 'Reh TA, Fischer AJ, Stem cells in the vertebrate retina. Brain Behav Evol (2001)'] ancestor: endocrine system 'Multicellular organisms have complex endocrine systems, allowing responses to environmental stimuli, regulation of development, reproduction, and homeostasis. Nuclear receptors (NRs), a metazoan-specific family of ligand-activated transcription factors, play central roles in endocrine responses, as intermediates between signaling molecules and target genes. The NR family includes ligand-bound and orphan receptors, that is, receptors with no known ligand or for which there is no ligand Pocket. Understanding NR evolution has been further improved by comparison of several completed genomes, particularly those of deuterostomes and ecdysozoans. In contrast, evolution of NR ligands is still much debated. One hypothesis proposes that several independent gains and losses of ligand-binding ability in NRs occurred in protostomes and deuterostomes. A second hypothesis, pertaining to the NR3 subfamily (vertebrate steroid hormone receptors and estrogen related receptor), proposes that before the divergence of protostomes and deuterostomes, there was an ancestral steroid receptor (AncSR) that was ligand-activated and that orphan receptors secondarily lost the ability to bind a ligand. (...) Our analysis reveals that steroidogenesis has been independently elaborated in the 3 main bilaterian lineages (...).' [DOI:10.1073/pnas.0812138106 'Markov GV, Tavares R, Dauphin-Villemant C, Demeneix BA, Baker ME, Laudet V, Independent elaboration of steroid hormone signaling pathways in metazoans. PNAS (2009)'] ancestor: iris 'The eye of the adult lamprey is remarkably similar to our own, and it possesses numerous features (including the expression of opsin genes) that are very similar to those of the eyes of jawed vertebrates. The lamprey's camera-like eye has a lens, an iris and extra-ocular muscles (five of them, unlike the eyes of jawed vertebrates, which have six), although it lacks intra-ocular muscles. Its retina also has a structure very similar to that of the retinas of other vertebrates, with three nuclear layers comprised of the cell bodies of photoreceptors and bipolar, horizontal, amacrine and ganglion cells. The southern hemisphere lamprey, Geotria australis, possesses five morphological classes of retinal photoreceptor and five classes of opsin, each of which is closely related to the opsins of jawed vertebrates. Given these similarities, we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)'] ancestor: ciliary body 'The eye of the adult lamprey is remarkably similar to our own, and it possesses numerous features (including the expression of opsin genes) that are very similar to those of the eyes of jawed vertebrates. The lamprey's camera-like eye has a lens, an iris and extra-ocular muscles (five of them, unlike the eyes of jawed vertebrates, which have six), although it lacks intra-ocular muscles. Its retina also has a structure very similar to that of the retinas of other vertebrates, with three nuclear layers comprised of the cell bodies of photoreceptors and bipolar, horizontal, amacrine and ganglion cells. The southern hemisphere lamprey, Geotria australis, possesses five morphological classes of retinal photoreceptor and five classes of opsin, each of which is closely related to the opsins of jawed vertebrates. Given these similarities, we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)'] ancestor: dorsolateral placode 'In summary, the collective term 'placodes' refers to some rather different structures, probably with different evolutionary origins. Some sensory placodes (at least the otic and olfactory) may have homologues in basal chordates. Even if this is so, it is apparent that they were elaborated considerably during early vertebrate evolution. Epibranchial and dorsolateral placodes appear to be new; we infer that their origin depended on the evolution of specific inductive signals.' [DOI:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4449 'Shimeld SM and Holland PW. Vertebrate innovations. PNAS (2000)'] ancestor: axial mesoderm [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.134 and Figure 4-11'] ancestor: dermis 'When approaching controversies surrounding skin evolution, we need to remember that the skin consists of two layers, an epidermis and a dermis, not a single evolving structure. (...) It is little wonder that controversies about homology exist. If we think of the epidermis, the dermis, and their interactions as an evolving unit, then their specialized products (hair, feathers, and reptilian scales) are broadly homologous.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.231-232 see also p.209 and p.228 and Figure 6-1'] ancestor: trigeminal placode 'The dorsolateral placodes (trigeminal and vestibular) develop from ectoderm lateral to the brain (...). In summary, the collective term 'placodes' refers to some rather different structures, probably with different evolutionary origins. Some sensory placodes (at least the otic and olfactory) may have homologues in basal chordates. Even if this is so, it is apparent that they were elaborated considerably during early vertebrate evolution. Epibranchial and dorsolateral placodes appear to be new; we infer that their origin depended on the evolution of specific inductive signals.' [DOI:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4449 'Shimeld SM and Holland PW. Vertebrate innovations. PNAS (2000)'] ancestor: posterior cardinal vein 'In primitive vertebrates, the basic early embryonic pattern is retained, and blood from anterior and posterior systemic tissues is returned in anterior and posterior cardinal veins, both pairs of veins uniting in common cardinal veins near the heart. In derived vertebrates, the cardinals appear but usually persist only in the embryo, being functionally replaced by alternative adult vessels, the precava and postcava (anterior and posterior venae cavae).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.462'] ancestor: common cardinal vein 'In primitive vertebrates, the basic early embryonic pattern is retained, and blood from anterior and posterior systemic tissues is returned in anterior and posterior cardinal veins, both pairs of veins uniting in common cardinal veins near the heart. In derived vertebrates, the cardinals appear but usually persist only in the embryo, being functionally replaced by alternative adult vessels, the precava and postcava (anterior and posterior venae cavae).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.462'] ancestor: anterior cardinal vein 'In primitive vertebrates, the basic early embryonic pattern is retained, and blood from anterior and posterior systemic tissues is returned in anterior and posterior cardinal veins, both pairs of veins uniting in common cardinal veins near the heart. In derived vertebrates, the cardinals appear but usually persist only in the embryo, being functionally replaced by alternative adult vessels, the precava and postcava (anterior and posterior venae cavae).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.462'] ancestor: paraxial mesoderm 'Presently, Cephalochordata, Urochordata, and Vertebrata are placed as subphyla of the phylum Chordata, in which the overall organization of embryonic tissues (dorsal hollow nerve cord, ventral digestive tract, axial notochord, and bilateral paraxial mesoderm) is largely conserved. In contrast, the echinoderms and hemichordates are sister groups of the chordates and they lack the notochord and paraxial mesoderm. Thus, the basic mesodermal organization of vertebrates must have appeared first in the common ancestor of the chordates.' [DOI:10.1002/dvdy.21177 'Kusakabe R and Kuratani S. Evolutionary perspectives from development of mesodermal components in the lamprey. Developmental dynamics (2007)'] ancestor: pupil 'The eye of the adult lamprey is remarkably similar to our own, and it possesses numerous features (including the expression of opsin genes) that are very similar to those of the eyes of jawed vertebrates. The lamprey's camera-like eye has a lens, an iris and extra-ocular muscles (five of them, unlike the eyes of jawed vertebrates, which have six), although it lacks intra-ocular muscles. Its retina also has a structure very similar to that of the retinas of other vertebrates, with three nuclear layers comprised of the cell bodies of photoreceptors and bipolar, horizontal, amacrine and ganglion cells. The southern hemisphere lamprey, Geotria australis, possesses five morphological classes of retinal photoreceptor and five classes of opsin, each of which is closely related to the opsins of jawed vertebrates. Given these similarities, we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)'] ancestor: epibranchial placode 'These (the epibranchial placodes) are focal thickenings of the embryonic ectoderm that form immediately dorsal and caudal of the clefts between the pharyngeal arches in all vertebrates, and they produce the neuroblasts which migrate and condense to form the distal cranial ganglia: the geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia. (...) The one substantial difference between the vertebrate pharyngeal arches and those of the protochordates is the presence of the epibranchial placodes but the evolution of these structures was undoubtedly driven by the endoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A, The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: lateral plate mesoderm 'A ventrolateral zone of amphioxus mesoderm grows down to surround the gut. Homology of this zone to the lateral plate mesoderm of vertebrates is supported by site of origin and fate.' [DOI:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4449 'Shimeld SM and Holland PW. Vertebrate innovations. PNAS (2000)'] ancestor: heart epicardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: spleen 'With the advent of clonal selection, the accumulation and segregation of T and B cells in specialized organs for antigen presentation became necessary, and indeed the spleen is found in all jawed vertebrates, but not in agnathans or invertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0781765190 'Paul WE, Fundamental Immunology (2008) p.94'] ancestor: ventral aorta 'When vertebrates first appeared, they must have possessed a ventral and dorsal aorta with aortic arches between them.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: aortic arch 'When vertebrates first appeared, they must have possessed a ventral and dorsal aorta with aortic arches between them.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: supraorbital lateral line 'The mechanosensory lateral line system is widely distributed in aquatic anamniotes. It was apparently present in the earliest vertebrates, as it has been identified in agnathans, cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, lungfishes, the crossopterygian Latimeria, and aquatic amphibians.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.195'] ancestor: taste bud 'Experients in amphibia have shown that an intrinsic feature of the pharyngeal endoderm is its ability to generate taste buds and this capacity must have been acquired by the endoderm at the origin of the vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: occipital lateral line 'The mechanosensory lateral line system is widely distributed in aquatic anamniotes. It was apparently present in the earliest vertebrates, as it has been identified in agnathans, cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, lungfishes, the crossopterygian Latimeria, and aquatic amphibians.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.195'] ancestor: infraorbital lateral line 'The mechanosensory lateral line system is widely distributed in aquatic anamniotes. It was apparently present in the earliest vertebrates, as it has been identified in agnathans, cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, lungfishes, the crossopterygian Latimeria, and aquatic amphibians.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.195'] ancestor: middle lateral line 'The mechanosensory lateral line system is widely distributed in aquatic anamniotes. It was apparently present in the earliest vertebrates, as it has been identified in agnathans, cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, lungfishes, the crossopterygian Latimeria, and aquatic amphibians.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.195'] ancestor: xanthophore 'The role of Pax3 during pigment development has been well studied.(...) Xanthophores are found in both fish and amphibians; therefore parsimony suggests that amniote ancestors possessed xanthophores. It is possible that Pax3-requiring xanthoblasts did not disappear in amniote evolution, but evolved into a 'new'kind of melanoblast; one that required Pax3 function.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.02.058 'Minchin JEN, Hughes SM, Sequential actions of Pax3 and Pax7 drive xanthophore development in zebrafish neural crest. Developmental Biology (2008)'] ancestor: proctodeum The origin of anus is debated and some evolutionary biologists suggest that the anus may have evolved multiple times in many different organisms, proposing that, in some lineages, the anus may have formed through a fusion of the gut with the reproductive organs. [DOI:10.1038/news.2008.1117 'Brumfiel G, Getting to the bottom of evolution: Genetic study investigates the origin of the anus. Nature (2008), comments on DOI:10.1038/nature07309 Hejnol A, Martindale MQ, Acoel development indicates the independent evolution of the bilaterian mouth and anus. Nature (2008)'] ancestor: adenohypophysis 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: neurohypophysis 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: hypophysis 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510'] ancestor: aortic arch 6 [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460-461 and Figure 12.19'] ancestor: aortic arch 5 [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460-461 and Figure 12.19'] ancestor: aortic arch 4 [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460-461 and Figure 12.19'] ancestor: aortic arch 3 [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460-461 and Figure 12.19'] ancestor: aortic arch 2 [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460-461 and Figure 12.19'] ancestor: aortic arch 1 [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460-461 and Figure 12.19'] ancestor: neuroectoderm '(...) the ability of ectoderm to produce neuronal cells is a general metazoan feature.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: embryonic mesoderm 'The Bilateria are triploblastic (with true endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) (...).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.722'] ancestor: embryonic ectoderm 'The Bilateria are triploblastic (with true endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) (...).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.722'] ancestor: embryonic endoderm 'The Bilateria are triploblastic (with true endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) (...).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.722'] ancestor: pharyngeal arch 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M and Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: ganglion 'Cranial sensory placodes are focused areas of the head ectoderm of vertebrates that contribute to the development of the cranial sense organs and their associated ganglia. Placodes have long been considered a key character of vertebrates, and their evolution is proposed to have been essential for the evolution of an active predatory lifestyle by early vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.02.021 'Mazet F, Hutt JA, Milloz J, Millard J, Graham A, Shimeld SM, Molecular evidence from Ciona intestinalis for the evolutionary origin of vertebrate sensory placodes. Developmental Biology (2005)'] ancestor: brain ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...) (reference 1); The neural tube is destined to differentiate into the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.165'] ancestor: cornea [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.426-427 and Figure 12-28'] ancestor: optic vesicle ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: lens placode ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The optic cup induces the overlying surface ectoderm first to thicken as a lens placode and then to invaginate and form a lens vesicle that differentiates into the lens.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: optic cup ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: lens 'The eye of the adult lamprey is remarkably similar to our own, and it possesses numerous features (including the expression of opsin genes) that are very similar to those of the eyes of jawed vertebrates. The lamprey's camera-like eye has a lens, an iris and extra-ocular muscles (five of them, unlike the eyes of jawed vertebrates, which have six), although it lacks intra-ocular muscles. Its retina also has a structure very similar to that of the retinas of other vertebrates, with three nuclear layers comprised of the cell bodies of photoreceptors and bipolar, horizontal, amacrine and ganglion cells. The southern hemisphere lamprey, Geotria australis, possesses five morphological classes of retinal photoreceptor and five classes of opsin, each of which is closely related to the opsins of jawed vertebrates. Given these similarities, we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)'] ancestor: mesenchyme [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.122-123 and Figure 4-5'] ancestor: heart atrium 'In the primitive vertebrate heart the four chambers are: 1. Sinus venosus (...) 2. Atrium (...) 3. Ventricle (...) 4. Conus arteriosus (...).' [ISBN:978-0721676678 'Romer AS, Vertebrate body (1970) p.428'] ancestor: sinus venosus 'In the primitive vertebrate heart the four chambers are: 1. Sinus venosus (...) 2. Atrium (...) 3. Ventricle (...) 4. Conus arteriosus (...).' [ISBN:978-0721676678 'Romer AS, Vertebrate body (1970) p.428'] ancestor: epithalamus 'The epithalamus has been historically conceived as a distinct neuroanatomical moiety within the diencephalon of all vertebrates. (...) The evolutionary origins of epithalamic structures are uncertain but asymmetry in this region is likely to have existed at the origin of the vertebrate, perhaps even the chordate, lineage.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910063.x 'Concha ML and Wilson SW, Asymmetry in the epithalamus of vertebrates. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: hypothalamus 'For instance, the vertebrate ventral diencephalon generates the hypothalamus which functions as a major endocrine center in cooperation with the hypophysis, the anterior part of the pituitary gland, located just ventral to the hypothalamus. In the amphioxus brain, the presence of a hypothalamus-like structure has been reported associated with the ventrally located Hatschek's pit, the hypothetical hypophysial homologue. It is thus conceivable that a hypothalamus-like structure originally involved in endocrine functions may have already been present before the establishment of vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.02.008 'Murakami Y, Uchida K, Rijli FM and Kuratani S, Evolution of the brain developmental plan: Insights from agnathans. Developmental Biology (2005)'] ancestor: medulla oblongata 'Classical anatomical studies subdivided the vertebrate rhombencephalon into pons and medulla oblongata. (...) The medulla oblongata appears therefore as a tagma, that is, a group of segmental units (pseudorhombomeres, in this case) sharing some morphological and molecular characteristics, and in some aspects different from the segmental units present in adjoining brain regions, pons and spinal cord.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.08.017 'Marin F, Aroca P, Puelles L, Hox gene colinear expression in the avian medulla oblongata is correlated with pseudorhombomeric domains. Developmental Biology (2008)'] ancestor: reproductive system 'Arguably, one of the most important aspects of urbilaterian organogenesis would have been gonadogenesis, since Urbilateria must have successfully generated gametes and developed a strategy for extrusion and fertilization, in order to be the ancestor of all living Bilateria.' [PMID:21672850 'Extavour CGM, Gray anatomy: phylogenetic patterns of somatic gonad structures and reproductive strategies across Bilateria. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2007)'] ancestor: olfactory placode 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (2) neurogenic placodes (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: oral cavity 'Echinoderms, hemichordates, and chordates are called deuterostomes because the mouth arises not from the blastopore but from a second invagination at the anterior end of the larva that pushes in to connect with the archenteron.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.32'] ancestor: optic chiasm 'The chiasm has been studied in great detail in some animals, while in others relatively little or nothing is known. Although there are some gross architectural features that are conserved within some animals, such as birds and fish, the general picture is one of diversity. This review will attempt to consider the key features of such diversity of chiasmatic organisation in vertebrates and the mechanisms that sculpt them from the limited literature that is available. However, as so much research has been undertaken on the structure and development of the chiasm in laboratory animals, any review must consider the information that has been gleaned from them and hope that future studies will determine whether the features revealed in these animals, and the underlying mechanisms that generate them, have a common vertebrate plan.' [DOI:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2005.04.005 'Jeffery G, Erskine L, Variations in the architecture and development of the vertebrate optic chiasm. Progress in retinal and eye research (2005)'] ancestor: somite ' (...) cephalocordates and craniates belong to a group known as Somitichordata. Somitichordate synapomorphies include (1) somites (...) (reference 1); The idea that the last common ancestor of bilaterian animals (Urbilateria) was segmented has been raised recently on evidence coming from comparative molecular embryology (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.40', DOI:10.1093/icb/43.1.137 'Balavoine G, Adoutte A, The segmented urbilateria: a testable scenario. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2003)'] ancestor: notochord ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (3) a stiff, longitudinal rod of turgid cells along the dorsal part of the body that is called a notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: chorion 'Structures homologous to the four extraembryonic membranes of reptiles and birds appear in mammals: amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.187'] ancestor: tail bud ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (5) a larva or embryo with a postanal tail.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: respiratory system 'There is no doubt that the primitive pattern of vertebrate air-breathing is the buccal pulse pump found in actinopterygian fishes.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.599 and Figure 18-23'] ancestor: bile duct ' (...) the amphibian liver has characteristics in common with both fish and terrestrial vertebrates. (...) The histological structure of the liver is similar to that in other vertebrates, with hepatocytes arranged in clusters and cords separated by a meshwork of sinusoids and the presence of the traditional triad of portal venule, hepatic arteriole, and bile duct.' [DOI:10.1053/ax.2000.7133 'Crawshaw GJ, Weinkle TK, Clinical and pathological aspects of the amphibian liver. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine (2000)'] ancestor: cystic duct [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.526-527 and Figure 13.38'] ancestor: common bile duct [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.526-527 and Figure 13.38'] ancestor: extrahepatic part of the hepatic duct [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figures 17-9 and 17-10'] ancestor: intrahepatic part of the hepatic duct [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figures 17-9 and 17-10'] ancestor: right hepatic duct [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figures 17-9 and 17-10'] ancestor: left hepatic duct [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figures 17-9 and 17-10'] ancestor: hepatic duct [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figures 17-9 and 17-10'] ancestor: common hepatic duct [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figures 17-9 and 17-10'] ancestor: gall bladder 'The presence of a gallbladder appears to be a primitive trait. It is found in most fish and all adult reptiles and amphibians and has been well conserved in mammals, for the most part.' [DOI:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0029(19970915)38:6<571::AID-JEMT3>3.0.CO;2-I 'Oldham-Ott CK, Gilloteaux J, Comparative morphology of the gallbladder and biliary tract in vertebrates: Variation in structure, homology in function and gallstones. Microscopy research and technique (1997)'] ancestor: dorsal root ganglion 'From comparative analyses of craniate brains, a morphotype of the brain in the earliest craniate stock can be constructed. In marked contrast to cephalochordates, the ancestral craniate morphotype had a plethora of unique features, which included a telencephalon with pallial and subpallial parts, paired olfactory bulbs with substantial projections to most or all of the telencephalic pallium, paired lateral eyes and ears, a lateral line system for both electroreception and mechanoreception, spinal cord dorsal root ganglia, and an autonomic nervous system.' [DOI:10.1002/1097-0185(20000615)261:3<111::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2-F 'Butler AB, Chordate evolution and the origin of craniates: An old brain in a new head. AnaT Rec (New Anat) (2000)'] ancestor: optic stalk ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: blood 'Recent findings strongly suggest that the molecular pathways involved in the development and function of blood cells are highly conserved among vertebrates and various invertebrates phyla. (...) There is now good reason to believe that, in vertebrates and invertebrates alike, blood cell lineages diverge from a common type of progenitor cell, the hemocytoblast.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.22.010605.093317 'Hartenstein V, Blood cells and blood cell development in the animal kingdom. Annual review of cell and developmental biology (2006) '] ancestor: intersegmental artery 'Few changes of evolutionary significance occur in the branching pattern of the dorsal aorta. All vertebrates have (...) paired intersegmental arteries to the trunk, tail, and paired appendages.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.612'] ancestor: retina 'The eye of the adult lamprey is remarkably similar to our own, and it possesses numerous features (including the expression of opsin genes) that are very similar to those of the eyes of jawed vertebrates. The lamprey's camera-like eye has a lens, an iris and extra-ocular muscles (five of them, unlike the eyes of jawed vertebrates, which have six), although it lacks intra-ocular muscles. Its retina also has a structure very similar to that of the retinas of other vertebrates, with three nuclear layers comprised of the cell bodies of photoreceptors and bipolar, horizontal, amacrine and ganglion cells. The southern hemisphere lamprey, Geotria australis, possesses five morphological classes of retinal photoreceptor and five classes of opsin, each of which is closely related to the opsins of jawed vertebrates. Given these similarities, we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)'] ancestor: brain arachnoid mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: diencephalon arachnoid mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: midbrain arachnoid mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: spinal cord arachnoid mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: otic placode 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (2) neurogenic placodes (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: hindbrain arachnoid mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: basilar artery 'The major artery supplying the hindbrain, the basilar artery, runs along the ventral keel of the hindbrain in all vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1242/dev.058776 'Fujita M, Cha YR, Pham VN, Sakurai A, Roman BL, Gutkind JS, Weinstein BM, Assembly and patterning of the vascular network of the vertebrate hindbrain. Development (2011)'] ancestor: semicircular duct 'In gnathostomes, each membranous labyrinth has three semicircular ducts that connect with a chamber known as the utriculus (...); Gnathostome ears have a horizontal semicircular duct. This brings their complement to three semicircular ducts, a pattern retained throughout gnathostome evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413-414 and p.58'] ancestor: lobar bronchus of right lung accessory lobe [PMID:11233389 'Muster AJ, Idriss RF, Backer CL, The left-side aortic arch in humans, viewed as the end-result of natural selection during vertebrate evolution. Cardiology in the young (2001)'] ancestor: lobar bronchus of right lung cranial lobe [PMID:11233389 'Muster AJ, Idriss RF, Backer CL, The left-side aortic arch in humans, viewed as the end-result of natural selection during vertebrate evolution. Cardiology in the young (2001)'] ancestor: epiblast 'In pregastrula zebrafish embryos, the epiblast is an inverted cup of cells that sits on top of a large yolk cell. (...) In amniote embryos (mammals and birds), gastrulation initiates in an epithelial layer called the epiblast. Cells in the epiblast undergo an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), migrate through the primitive streak (PS), and incorporate in the middle (mesoderm) or outer (endoderm) layer. The presumptive definitive endoderm (DE) cells invade and displace an outer layer of extraembryonic tissue cells, the hypoblast in chick and the visceral endoderm (VE) in mouse, which form supporting structures such as the yolk sac.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.042308.113344 'Zorn AM, Wells JM, Vertebrate endoderm development and organ formation. Annual Review of Cell Developmental Biology (2009)'] ancestor: pars anterior 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: infundibulum 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: anterior semicircular duct 'Vertebrata is characterized by three synapomorphies. (...) Vertebrates also have at least two vertical semicircular ducts (...). In gnathostomes, each membranous labyrinth has three semicircular ducts that connect with a chamber known as the utriculus.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.53 and p.413-414'] ancestor: lateral semicircular duct 'Gnathostome ears have a horizontal semicircular duct. This brings their complement to three semicircular ducts, a pattern retained throughout gnathostome evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.58'] ; 'In gnathostomes, each membranous labyrinth has three semicircular ducts that connect with a chamber known as the utriculus.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413-414'] ancestor: posterior semicircular duct 'Vertebrata is characterized by three synapomorphies. (...) Vertebrates also have at least two vertical semicircular ducts (...). In gnathostomes, each membranous labyrinth has three semicircular ducts that connect with a chamber known as the utriculus.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.53 and p.413-414'] ancestor: Meckel's cartilage 'In all jawed vertebrates, including fish, the first pharyngeal arch generates the jaw apparatus. The neural crest cells of this arch migrate to form Meckel's cartilage, the precursor of the jaw.' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.16-17'] ancestor: lobar bronchus of the right lung caudal lobe [PMID:11233389 'Muster AJ, Idriss RF, Backer CL, The left-side aortic arch in humans, viewed as the end-result of natural selection during vertebrate evolution. Cardiology in the young (2001)'] ancestor: ovary ' (...) while it is likely that Urbilateria lacked a complex somatic reproductive system, it is at present impossible to speculate on whether or not it possessed a true gonad, let alone any other somatic adaptations for reproduction (reference 1); Examination of different vertebrate species shows that the adult gonad is remarkably similar in its morphology across different phylogenetic classes. Surprisingly, however, the cellular and molecular programs employed to create similar organs are not evolutionarily conserved (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1093/icb/icm052 'Extavour CGM, Gray anatomy: phylogenetic patterns of somatic gonad structures and reproductive strategies across the Bilateria. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2007)', DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.042308.13350 'DeFalco T and Capel B, Gonad morphogenesis in vertebrates: divergent means to a convergent end. Annual review of cell and developmental biology (2009)'] ancestor: testis ' (...) while it is likely that Urbilateria lacked a complex somatic reproductive system, it is at present impossible to speculate on whether or not it possessed a true gonad, let alone any other somatic adaptations for reproduction (reference 1); Examination of different vertebrate species shows that the adult gonad is remarkably similar in its morphology across different phylogenetic classes. Surprisingly, however, the cellular and molecular programs employed to create similar organs are not evolutionarily conserved (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1093/icb/icm052 'Extavour CGM, Gray anatomy: phylogenetic patterns of somatic gonad structures and reproductive strategies across the Bilateria. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2007)', DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.042308.13350 'DeFalco T and Capel B, Gonad morphogenesis in vertebrates: divergent means to a convergent end. Annual review of cell and developmental biology (2009)'] ancestor: thymus 'A thymus develops in all vertebrates from the endodermal epithelium of certain pharyngeal pouches and from the adjacent ectodermal epithelium. In fishes, all the pouches, or the first four, contribute to thymus formation, but in tetrapods, the number is more restricted. In mammals, only the third and fourth are involved, and the contribution of the third is by far the greater.' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.558'] ancestor: pancreatic duct 'These data show that ducts within the zebrafish pancreas originally arise in situ from isolated progenitor cells rather than arising from reiterative branching of the pancreatic epithelium. This process of pancreatic duct formation in zebrafish may be analogous to the mechanism of duct formation in the mammalian mammary and salivary glands. (...) A related mechanism of duct formation has also been proposed to occur within the mammalian pancreatic epithelium.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.04.035 'Yee NS, Lorent K, Pack M, Exocrine pancreas development in zebrafish. Developmental Biology (2005)'] ancestor: dorsal pancreatic duct 'These data show that ducts within the zebrafish pancreas originally arise in situ from isolated progenitor cells rather than arising from reiterative branching of the pancreatic epithelium. This process of pancreatic duct formation in zebrafish may be analogous to the mechanism of duct formation in the mammalian mammary and salivary glands. (...) A related mechanism of duct formation has also been proposed to occur within the mammalian pancreatic epithelium.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.04.035 'Yee NS, Lorent K, Pack M, Exocrine pancreas development in zebrafish. Developmental Biology (2005)'] ancestor: ventral pancreatic duct 'These data show that ducts within the zebrafish pancreas originally arise in situ from isolated progenitor cells rather than arising from reiterative branching of the pancreatic epithelium. This process of pancreatic duct formation in zebrafish may be analogous to the mechanism of duct formation in the mammalian mammary and salivary glands. (...) A related mechanism of duct formation has also been proposed to occur within the mammalian pancreatic epithelium.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.04.035 'Yee NS, Lorent K, Pack M, Exocrine pancreas development in zebrafish. Developmental Biology (2005)'] ancestor: liver 'All vertebrates possess a liver (reference 1); Later in craniate evolution, an anterior gill arch was transformed into jaws, and many new types of feeding subsequently evolved.(...) A liver evolved that, among its many functions, stores considerable energy as glycogen or lipid (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.526', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: diencephalon dura mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: intermediate mesenchyme [DOI:10.1093/icb/40.5.718 'Hall BK, Balfour, Garstang and de Beer: The First Century of Evolutionary Embryology. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2000)'] ancestor: bronchus [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.409-411 Figure 11.5'] ancestor: dorsal aorta 'When vertebrates first appeared, they must have possessed a ventral and dorsal aorta with aortic arches between them.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: internal carotid artery [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.451-454 and Figure 12.11'] ancestor: facio-acoustic neural crest 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: trigeminal neural crest 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: brain dura mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: nasal cavity 'Despite significant modification to the nasal cavity within Archosauria and its extreme hypertrophy and supraorbital development in Lambeosaurinae, the neural olfactory system and the olfactory region of the nasal cavity proper retain their plesiomorphic positions and associations, suggesting that this system is highly conserved in vertebrate evolution.' [DOI:10.1666/0094-8373(2006)032[0109:NCHACC]2.0.CO;2 'Evans DC, Nasal cavity homologies and cranial crest function in lambeosaurine dinosaurs. Paleobiology (2006)'] ancestor: arterial system 'The appearance of Chordata and subsequently the vertebrates is accompanied by a rapid structural diversification of this primitive linear heart: looping, unidirectional circulation, an enclosed vasculature, and the conduction system.' [DOI:10.1196/annals.1341.002 'Bishopric NH, Evolution of the heart from bacteria to man. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2005)'] ancestor: extraembryonic arterial system Two umbilical arteries and one vein are characters of the common ancestor of living placental mammals. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: eye 'The eye of the adult lamprey is remarkably similar to our own, and it possesses numerous features (including the expression of opsin genes) that are very similar to those of the eyes of jawed vertebrates. The lamprey's camera-like eye has a lens, an iris and extra-ocular muscles (five of them, unlike the eyes of jawed vertebrates, which have six), although it lacks intra-ocular muscles. Its retina also has a structure very similar to that of the retinas of other vertebrates, with three nuclear layers comprised of the cell bodies of photoreceptors and bipolar, horizontal, amacrine and ganglion cells. The southern hemisphere lamprey, Geotria australis, possesses five morphological classes of retinal photoreceptor and five classes of opsin, each of which is closely related to the opsins of jawed vertebrates. Given these similarities, we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)'] ancestor: heart 'As noted, the hearts of birds and mammals have four chambers that arises from the two chambers (atrium and ventricle) of the fish heart.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: venous system 'The appearance of Chordata and subsequently the vertebrates is accompanied by a rapid structural diversification of this primitive linear heart: looping, unidirectional circulation, an enclosed vasculature, and the conduction system.' [DOI:10.1196/annals.1341.002 'Bishopric NH, Evolution of the heart from bacteria to man. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2005)'] ancestor: cranial nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: oral region ' (...) mouth development is very similar in protostomes and 'basal' deuterostomes, whereas the chordate mouth seems to develop at a new position. Recent data for echinoderms and hemichordates further suggest that this change in mouth position may result from change in the influence of a conserved ectodermal patterning system on mouth development. It has been suggested that the mouths of vertebrates and urochordates may constitute a 'new' mouth.' [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2007.06.002 'Christiaen L, Jaszczyszyn Y, Kerfant M, Kanob S, Thermes V, Joly JS, Evolutionary modification of mouth position in deuterostomes. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2007)'] ancestor: extraembryonic venous system Two umbilical arteries and one vein are characters of the common ancestor of living placental mammals. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: telencephalon 'From an evolutionary standpoint, the telencephalon is the most recent brain structure: the amphioxus does not have this structure as a morphological entity. Overt telencephalon is present in the hagfish and lamprey to receive numerous input fibers from various parts of the CNS, similar to gnathostomes.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.02.008 'Murakami Y, Uchida K, Rijli FM and Kuratani S, Evolution of the brain developmental plan: Insights from agnathans. Developmental Biology (2005)'] ancestor: inner ear 'The labyrinth, or inner ear, evolved very early in vertebrate history and, with many variations in configuration but none of basic design and function, has been retained by all vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.366'] ancestor: foregut 'The bilaterian gut is typically a complete tube that opens to the exterior at both ends. It consists of mouth, foregut, midgut, hindgut, and anus (reference 1); Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.203', ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: urogenital system 'Kidneys and gonads (of vertebrates) develop from adjacent tissues, and after the excretory or urinary ducts have developed, the reproductive system usually taps into them or their derivatives.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.633'] ancestor: olfactory organ [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.41 and Figure 2-11 p.42'] ancestor: chondrocranium 'The skull of ancestral tetrapods has the three basic components that we have been considering: (1) chondrocranium, (2) splanchnocranium, and (3) dermatocranium (reference 1).' Origin of chondrocranium predates the evolution of vertebrates (reference 2). [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.242', DOI:10.1002/jemt.10217 'Donoghue PCJ and Sansom IJ, Origin and early evolution of vertebrate skeletonization, Microscopy reasearch and technique (2002)'] ancestor: utricle 'In gnathostomes, each membranous labyrinth has three semicircular ducts that connect with a chamber known as the utriculus.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413-414'] ancestor: midgut 'The bilaterian gut is typically a complete tube that opens to the exterior at both ends. It consists of mouth, foregut, midgut, hindgut, and anus (reference 1); Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.203', ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: foregut-midgut junction 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: extraembryonic structure [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.188 Figure 5.29'] ancestor: central nervous system ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...) (reference 1); The neural tube is destined to differentiate into the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system) (reference 2); Taken together, our data make a very strong case that the complex molecular mediolateral architecture of the developing trunk CNS (central nervous system), as shared between Platynereis and vertebrates, was already present in their last common ancestor, Urbilateria. The concept of bilaterian nervous system centralization implies that neuron types concentrate on one side of the trunk, as is the case in vertebrates and many invertebrates including Platynereis, where they segregate and become spatially organized (as opposed to a diffuse nerve net). Our data reveal that a large part of the spatial organization of the annelid and vertebrate CNS was already present in their last common ancestor, which implies that Urbilateria had already possessed a CNS (reference 3).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28 (reference 1)', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.165 (reference 2)', DOI:10.1016/j.cell.2007.02.040 'Denes AS, Jekely G, Steinmetz PRH, Raible F, Snyman H, Prud'homme B, Ferrier DEK, Balavoine G and Arendt D, Molecular architecture of annelid nerve cord supports common origin of nervous system centralization in Bilateria. Cell (2007) (reference 3)'] ancestor: liver and biliary system Liver and pancreas are described as major organ systems of craniates. [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.42-43 and Figure 2-11'] ancestor: pharyngeal arch 1 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M and Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: pharyngeal arch 2 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M and Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: pharyngeal arch 3 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M and Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: pharyngeal arch 4 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M and Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: floor plate neural tube 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: right lung 'Lungs had already developed as paired ventral pockets from the intestine in the ancestor of Osteognathostomata.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.210'] ancestor: cardiovascular system 'The vessels of the cardiovascular system are as varied as the diverse organs they supply. However, these variations are based on modifications of a fundamental plan of organization common to vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.451'] ancestor: roof plate neural tube Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: pelvic girdle 'The pelvic girdle is never joined by contributions of dermal bone. From its first appearance in placoderms, the pelvic girdle is exclusively endoskeletal. It arose from pterygiophores, perhaps several times, in support of the fin.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.333'] ancestor: alar plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: neural tube ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: parotid gland 'The most common oral glands in mammals are the salivary glands. There are usually three primary pairs of salivary glands, named for their approximate positions: mandibular (submandibular or submaxillary), sublingual, and parotid.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.525'] ancestor: gut 'The bilaterian gut is typically a complete tube that opens to the exterior at both ends. It consists of mouth, foregut, midgut, hindgut, and anus (reference 1); Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.203', ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: lung - swim bladder 'Lungs had already developed as paired ventral pockets from the intestine in the ancestor of Osteognathostomata. (...) In actinopterygian fishes, apart from Cladistia, the ventral intestinal pocket migrates dorsally and becomes the swim-bladder, a mainly hydrostatical organ (reference 1); Comparative transcriptome analyses indicate molecular homology of zebrafish swimbladder and Mammalian lung (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.210', DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0024019 'Zheng W, Wang Z, Collins JE, Andrews RM, Stemple D, Gong Z, Comparative transcriptome analyses indicate molecular homology of zebrafish swimbladder and Mammalian lung. PLoS One (2011)'] ancestor: external ear 'Some species, like Amolops tormotus (Feng etal. 2006), have a cavity in front of the tympanic membrane which is considered to be an ear canal and thus an outer ear. (...) The ancestral lineage of amphibians separated from the mammalian lineage, approximately 350 million years ago, in the paleozoic era. Many of the important developments in the auditory systems emerged after the ancestral paths separated (Manley and Clack 2003). This implies that shared features, like the tympanic middle ear, developed independently in different vertebrate lineages.' [DOI:10.1007/s00359-008-0327-1 'Schoffelen RLM, Segenhout JM, Van Dijk P, Mechanics of the exceptional anuran ear. Journal of Comparative Physiology A (2008)'] ancestor: middle ear 'The tympanic cavity and auditory tube of an amniote develop from the first embryonic pharyngeal pouch, so they are homologous to the first gill pouch, or spiracle, of a fish. We are uncertain whether this homology strictly applies to the middle ear cavity and auditory tube of lissamphibians, which show certain peculiarities in their development.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.417'] ancestor: viscerocranium 'The skull of ancestral tetrapods has the three basic components that we have been considering: (1) chondrocranium, (2) splanchnocranium, and (3) dermatocranium (reference 1); Each part of the skull arises from a separate phylogenetic source. The most ancient part is the splanchnocranium (visceral cranium), which first arose to support pharyngeal slits in protochordates (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.242', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.235'] ancestor: intraembryonic coelom ' (...) I regard it unlikely that coeloms of all bilaterian animals are comparable and evolved very early. Considering all these questions, few convincing characters concerning the evolution of body cavities remain to be named. (...) A segmental coelom appears to have evolved at least two times, in Annelida and in Myomerata (Acrania and Craniota).' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.166'] ancestor: axial skeleton 'The axial musculoskeletal system represents the plesiomorphic locomotor engine of the vertebrate body, playing a central role in locomotion. In craniates, the evolution of the postcranial skeleton is characterized by two major transformations. First, the axial skeleton became increasingly functionally and morphologically regionalized. Second, the axial-based locomotion plesiomorphic for craniates became progressively appendage-based with the evolution of extremities in tetrapods.' [DOI:10.1186/1742-9994-8-4 'Schilling N, Evolution of the axial system in craniates: morphology and function of the perivertebral musculature. Frontiers in Zoology (2011)'] ancestor: diencephalon 'Fine structural, computerized three-dimensional (3D) mapping of cell connectivity in the amphioxus nervous system and comparative molecular genetic studies of amphioxus and tunicates have provided recent insights into the phylogenetic origin of the vertebrate nervous system. The results suggest that several of the genetic mechanisms for establishing and patterning the vertebrate nervous system already operated in the ancestral chordate and that the nerve cord of the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates included a diencephalon, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: skeletal muscle 'This result implies the following views in terms of evolutionary differentiation: (1) Arthropod striated muscle and vertebrate skeletal and cardiac muscles share a common ancestor. In other words, they did not evolve independently (...) (5) The divergence of vertebrate skeletal and cardiac muscles/vertebrate smooth muscle and nonmuscle is at least before that of vertebrates/arthropods. In other words, emergence of skeletal and cardiac musle type tissues preceded the vertebrate/arthropod divergence (ca. 700 MYA).' [PMID:10368962 'Oota S, Saitou N, Phylogenetic relationship of muscle tissues deduced from superimposition of gene trees. Mol Biol Evol (1999)'] ancestor: basal plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: alar plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: basal plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: alar plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: basal plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: olfactory cortex ' (In mammals) Odorant detection is mediated by millions of olfactory sensory neurons located in the olfactory epithelium lining the nasal cavity. These neurons transmit sensory signals to the olfactory bulb of the brain, which in turn sends signals to the olfactory cortex.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2004.tb00097.x 'Buck LB, Olfactory receptors and odor coding in mammals. Nutrition Reviews (2008)'] ancestor: lateral wall metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: lateral wall medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: right atrium 'The tetrapod clade develops a complete atrial septum and loses the fifth aortic arch altogether.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: spinal peripheral nervous system Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ear 'Both vertebrate and invertebrate auditory organs are thought to have evolved from primitive mechanosensors, but the nature of the ancestral structure and the evolutionary trajectories followed in distinct animal lineages remain unknown. In particular, we do not know how many types of mechanosensor existed in the protostome-deuterostome ancestor from which insects and vertebrates evolved or whether the PDA had an auditory organ.' [DOI:10.1002/dvdy.20207 'Boekhoff-Falk G, Hearing in Drosophila: Development of Johnston's organ and emerging parallels to vertebrate ear development. Developmental Dynamics (2005)'] ancestor: vault of skull 'The earliest tetrapods arose from rhipidistian ancestors and retained many of their skull features, including most of the bones of the dermatocranium.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.256'] ancestor: cranium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.41 and Figure 2-11 p.42'] ancestor: pectoral girdle and thoracic body wall [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.330-336'] ancestor: limb 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: hindlimb 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: arm 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: elbow [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Chapter 5, Form and function: Joints and kinematic chain, p.193-195'] ancestor: forelimb zeugopodium 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: shoulder ' (...) endochondral elements of the early tetrapod shoulder develop from two centers of ossification, giving rise to a scapula and a 'coracoid'.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.332'] ancestor: forelimb stylopodium 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: forelimb autopodium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.321 and Figure 9.2'] ancestor: leg 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: hip 'The pelvic girdle is never joined by contributions of dermal bone. From its first appearance in placoderms, the pelvic girdle is exclusively endoskeletal. It arose from pterygiophores, perhaps several times, in support of the fin.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.333'] ancestor: knee [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Chapter 5, Form and function: Joints and kinematic chain, p.360-365'] ancestor: hindlimb zeudopodium 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: hindlimb stylopodium 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: hindlimb autopodium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.321 and Figure 9.2'] ancestor: ventral mesogastrium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: dorsal mesogastrium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: heart mesentery [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: gastrosplenic ligament [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: falciform ligament [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.160 and Figure 4-31'] ancestor: greater omentum [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: lesser omentum [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: mesogastrium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: lateral wall myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: duodenum rostral part 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: duodenum caudal part 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: primary palate Early tetrapod possessed a primary palate that included the vomer, pterygoid, parasphenoid, palatine and ectopterygoid bones. Therapsid evolved a partial secondary palate formed by the medial extension of the premaxilla and maxilla. Mammals have a secondary palate that, in addition to extensions of the premaxilla and maxilla, includes part of the palatine bone. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.278 Figure 7.58 and p.498'] ancestor: sublingual gland 'Most mammals have well-developed parotid, mandibular, and sublingual glands.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.553'] ancestor: submandibular gland 'The most common oral glands in mammals are the salivary glands. There are usually three primary pairs of salivary glands, named for their approximate positions: mandibular (submandibular or submaxillary), sublingual, and parotid.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.525'] ancestor: left atrium 'The tetrapod clade develops a complete atrial septum and loses the fifth aortic arch altogether.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: main bronchus [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.596-599 and Figure 18-22, A'] ancestor: trachea 'In primitive fishes and most tetrapods, the lungs of adults are usually paired. They lie ventral to the digestive tract and are connected to the outside environment through the trachea.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.409'] ancestor: brachial plexus 'To reach the muscles, dermatomes, and other structures of the limbs, some of the neurons in the spinal nerves come together in the plexus at the base of the limb. Such plexuses occur in all gnathostomes, and they reach their highest complexity among mammals and birds in which the cervical plexus supplies many ventral neck muscles, the brachial plexus supplies the pectoral appendage, a lumbosacral plexus supplies the pelvic appendage, and a coccygeal plexus supplies some of the pelvic muscles.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.436'] ancestor: endolymphatic appendage Endolymphatic appendage is one of the mammal developmental events. [http://dpc.uba.uva.nl/ctz/vol71/nr01/art05] ancestor: saccule 'In gnathostomes, each membranous labyrinth has three semicircular ducts that connect with a chamber known as the utriculus. (...) In all gnathostomes, the utriculus connects ventrally with a larger sac, called the sacculus (...) .' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413-414'] ancestor: nasopharynx [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) Box essay 13.1 and Box figure I, p.502-503'] ancestor: salivary gland 'In air-feeding animals, the lack of water column to lubricate the food has been compensated for by the evolution of the salivary glands. These glands are present only in amniotes and are controlled by the parasympathetic system.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptationm(2005) p.211'] ancestor: palatal shelf Early tetrapod possessed a primary palate that included the vomer, pterygoid, parasphenoid, palatine and ectopterygoid bones. Therapsid evolved a partial secondary palate formed by the medial extension of the premaxilla and maxilla. Mammals have a secondary palate that, in addition to extensions of the premaxilla and maxilla, includes part of the palatine bone (reference 1); In all vertebrates, the secondary palate arises as bilateral outgrowths from the maxillary processes. (...) Secondary palate development appears to be absent in lower vertebrates including fish (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.278 Figure 7.58 and p.498', PMID:3074914 'Ferguson WJ Mark. Palate development. Development (1988)'] ancestor: bulbus cordis - bulbus arteriosus 'The conus arteriosus is considered a component part of the heart because it has a myocardial wall and lies within the pericardial cavity. It is a feature of the evolutionary primitive state. In amphibians it is called the bulbus cordis, a term that is also used for its equivalent in mammalian embryos. The more derived extant bony fish, like the zebrafish, do not have this cardiac compartment. They have a so-called bulbus arteriosus, which is not enclosed by cardiac muscle, but by elastic tissue and smooth muscle, and therefore is considered to be a specialization of the proximal part of the ventral aorta. However, similar to the mammalian condition, the bulbus arteriosus in zebrafish embryonic hearts is surrounded by myocardium that disappears with development. The bony fish bulbus arteriosus might thus be homologous to the shark conus arteriosus and amphibian/mammalian bulbus cordis.' [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM, Christoffels VN, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiological Reviews (2003)'] ancestor: lower respiratory tract [ISBN:978-0198566694 'p.211-212'] ancestor: forebrain 'In craniate embryos, neural expression of Distal-less-related genes is exclusively in the forebrain (...). Because the major neural expression domain of amphioxus AmphiDll is in the anterior three-fourths of the cerebral vesicle, we suggest that this region of the neural tube is homologous to parts of the craniate forebrain. This conclusion is strongly supported by three-dimensional, computer-assisted reconstruction of the neural tube of amphioxus based on serial transmission electron microscopy. At the neuroanatomical level, a number of detailed homologies are indicated between the anterior three-fourths of the amphioxus cerebral vesicle and the diencephalic region of the craniate forebrain. If one assumes that the amphioxus condition fairly represents the nervous system of the proximate ancestor of the craniates, one can suggest that they evolved from a creature that had the beginnings of a forebrain.' [PMID:8787764 'Holland ND, Panganiban G, Henyey EL, Holland LZ, Sequence and developmental expression of AmphiDll, an amphioxus Distal-less gene transcribed in the ectoderm, epidermis and nervous system: insights into evolution of craniate forebrain and neural crest. Development (1996)'] ancestor: sympathetic nervous system 'The autonomic nervous system is composed of three divisions: the sympathetic division, the parasympathetic division, and the enteric division. (...) In ray-finned teleost fishes, a sympathetic chain is present, and dual innervation of additional organs can be observed. A similar pattern can be found in amphibians (...). The evolution of the autonomic nervous system has been quite conservative, especially in the tetrapod lineage.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.461-463'] ancestor: interatrial septum 'The tetrapod clade develops a complete atrial septum and loses the fifth aortic arch altogether.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: interventricular septum 'The two most progressive vertebrate classes, the birds and mammals, have completed the ventricular septum and at long last have completely separated the two blood streams along the length of the major heart chambers. This development has obviously been brought about independently in the two cases, since mammals and birds have evolved independently from primitive reptiles.' [ISBN:978-0721676678 'Romer AS, Vertebrate body (1970) p.430'] ancestor: epithelium 'The two basic types of metazoan tissue are epithelial and connective. The simplest metazoans, and developmental stages of many primitive invertebrates, consist solely of these two layers. Thus, epithelial and connective tissues may be the primary (original) tissues of metazoans, and both are important in the functional organization of animals.' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.59'] ancestor: lower eyelid 'A tetrapod's eye usually has one or more eyelids that can move across its surface and protect and cleanse it. The eye of lissamphibians has a stationary upper eyelid but a movable and transparent lower one.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.431'] ancestor: upper eyelid 'A tetrapod's eye usually has one or more eyelids that can move across its surface and protect and cleanse it. The eye of lissamphibians has a stationary upper eyelid but a movable and transparent lower one.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.431'] ancestor: respiratory tract [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007), Respiratory systems chapter 11, p.211-212'] ancestor: pleura [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: anal region 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: autonomic nervous system 'From comparative analyses of craniate brains, a morphotype of the brain in the earliest craniate stock can be constructed. In marked contrast to cephalochordates, the ancestral craniate morphotype had a plethora of unique features, which included a telencephalon with pallial and subpallial parts, paired olfactory bulbs with substantial projections to most or all of the telencephalic pallium, paired lateral eyes and ears, a lateral line system for both electroreception and mechanoreception, spinal cord dorsal root ganglia, and an autonomic nervous system.' [DOI:10.1002/1097-0185(20000615)261:3<111::AID-AR6>3.0.CO;2-F 'Butler AB, Chordate evolution and the origin of craniates: An old brain in a new head. AnaT Rec (New Anat) (2000)'] ancestor: gonad 'Examination of different vertebrate species shows that the adult gonad is remarkably similar in its morphology across different phylogenetic classes. Surprisingly, however, the cellular and molecular programs employed to create similar organs are not evolutionarily conserved.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.042308.13350 'DeFalco T, Capel B, Gonad morphogenesis in vertebrates: divergent means to a convergent end. Annual review of cell and developmental biology (2009)'] ancestor: mammary gland 'The detailed similarities of mammary glands in living monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians argue for a monophyletic origin of these glands, perhaps by the combination of parts of preexisting sebaceous and sweat glands.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.224'] ancestor: peripheral nervous system ' (...) specific vertebrate traits within the chordate phylum such as skeletal tissues, PNS, and spectacular head and brain development, are linked to the NC (neural crest) and its derivatives.' [DOI:10.1007/978-0-387-46954-6_6 'Dupin E, Creuzet S, Le Douarin NM, The contribution of the neural crest to the vertebrate body. Advances in experimental medicine and biology (2006)'] ancestor: embryonic umbilical vein Two umbilical arteries and one vein are characters of the common ancestor of living placental mammals. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: embryonic vitelline vein 'Within each vertebrate group, the veins compose a few main functional systems that arise embryologically from what seems to be a common developmental pattern. (...) Early in development, three major sets of paired veins are present: the vitelline veins from the yolk sac, the cardinal veins from the body of the embryo itself, and the lateral abdominal veins from the pelvic region. The paired vitelline veins are among the first vessels to appear in the embryo. They arise over the yolk and follow the yolk stalk into the body. They then turn anteriorly, continue along the gut, and enter the sinus venosus.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460'] ancestor: nervous system 'Nervous systems evolved in the ancestor of Eumetazoa.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.117'] ancestor: integumental system ' (...) the integument of many tetrapods is reinforced by a morphologically and structurally diverse assemblage of skeletal elements. These elements are widely understood to be derivatives of the once all-encompassing dermal skeleton of stem-gnathostomes (...).' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.01043.x 'Vickaryous MK, Sire JY, The integumentary skeleton of tetrapods: origin, evolution, and development. J Anat (2009)'] ancestor: upper respiratory tract [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007), Respiratory systems chapter 11, p.211-212'] ancestor: stomach 'It appears that the stomach has an ancient origin. The stomach first appears in the fish lineage. The prevertebrate chordates do not have a true stomach, whereas the cartilaginous and bony fish do. Although most fish do have a true stomach, some fish species appear to have lost the stomach secondarily. The remaining vertebrate lineages do have a true stomach (at least in the adult animal), although there is great variation in the size and shape of the stomach.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00076.x 'Smith DM, Grasty RC, Theodosiou NA, Tabin CJ, Nascone-Yoder NM, Evolutionary relationships between the amphibian, avian, and mammalian stomachs. Evolution and development (2000)'] ancestor: hindbrain dura mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: midbrain dura mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: spinal cord dura mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: alimentary system 'All metazoans (with degenerate exceptions) have some sort of digestive cavity with a means of entrance to and exit from it.' [ISBN:978-0721676685 'Sherwood Romer A and Parsons T, Vertebrate body (1977) p.3'] ancestor: midgut mesentery 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: urogenital sinus 'In mammals the lowly monotremes still have a cloaca. Higher types have done away with this structure and have a separate anal outlet for the rectum. The monotreme cloaca shows the initiation of this subdivision. The cloaca has such includes only the distal part, roughly comparable to the proctodeum. The more proximal part is divided into (1) a large dorsal passage into which the intestine opens, the coprodeum, and (2) a ventral portion, the urodeum with which the bladder connects. (...) the development of the placental mammals recapitulates in many respects the phylogenetic story. In the sexually indifferent stage of placental mammal there is a cloaca. While the indifferent stage still persists, a septum develops, and extends out to the closing membrane. This divides the cloaca into two chambers: a coprodeum continuous with the gut above, and a urodeum or urogenital sinus below.' [ISBN:978-0721676678 'Romer AS, Vertebrate body (1970)p.388-89 and Figure 300'] ancestor: oesophagus mesentery 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: midgut loop mesentery 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: thyroid ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (2) a groove in the pharyngeal floor known as the endostyle, or a thyroid gland derived from part of the endostyle (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: tongue 'Most adult amphibians have a tongue, as do all known reptiles, birds and mammals. Thus it is likely that the tongue appeared with the establishment of tetrapods and this structure seems to be related, to some extant, to the terrestrial lifestyle.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00073.x 'Iwasaki S, Evolution of the structure and function of the vertebrate tongue. J Anat (2002)'] ancestor: pyloric region 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: stomach fundus 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: mesentery of rostral part of duodenum 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: mesentery of caudal part of duodenum 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: premaxilla 'Although the presence of a tooth-bearing outer buccal arcade (premaxilla, maxilla, dentary) is cited as a common character of Osteichthyes, dipnoans lack all three bones (...) (reference 1); (...) in all higher vertebrates a premaxilla is present (...) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-3540428541 'Kapoor BG, Bhavna Khanna, Ichthyology Handbook (2004) p.105'; DOI:10.1017/S0022215100025585 'O'Malley JF, Evolution of the nasal cavities and sinuses in relation to function. The Journal of Laryngology and Otology (1924)'] ancestor: lower jaw skeleton 'The jaw joint of all jawed vertebrates, except for mammals, involves the quadrate and articular bones, or the posterior ends of the palatoquadrate and mandibular cartilages; A correlate of the conversion of the articular and quadrate bones to the malleus and incus is that all adult mammals have a jaw joint that lies between the dentary of the lower jaw and the squamosal bone of the skull roof.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.241 and p.101'] ancestor: upper jaw skeleton 'The jaw joint of all jawed vertebrates, except for mammals, involves the quadrate and articular bones, or the posterior ends of the palatoquadrate and mandibular cartilages; A correlate of the conversion of the articular and quadrate bones to the malleus and incus is that all adult mammals have a jaw joint that lies between the dentary of the lower jaw and the squamosal bone of the skull roof.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.241 and p.101'] ancestor: foregut-midgut junction mesentery 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: hindbrain sinus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: dorsal mesocardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: alimentary system mesentery 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: heart ventricle 'In the primitive vertebrate heart the four chambers are: 1. Sinus venosus (...) 2. Atrium (...) 3. Ventricle (...) 4. Conus arteriosus (...)' [ISBN:978-0721676678 'Romer AS, Vertebrate body (1970) p.428'] ancestor: bulbus cordis caudal half 'The conus arteriosus is considered a component part of the heart because it has a myocardial wall and lies within the pericardial cavity. It is a feature of the evolutionary primitive state. In amphibians it is called the bulbus cordis, a term that is also used for its equivalent in mammalian embryos. The more derived extant bony fish, like the zebrafish, do not have this cardiac compartment. They have a so-called bulbus arteriosus, which is not enclosed by cardiac muscle, but by elastic tissue and smooth muscle, and therefore is considered to be a specialization of the proximal part of the ventral aorta (256). However, similar to the mammalian condition (306, 326, 339), the bulbus arteriosus in zebrafish embryonic hearts is surrounded by myocardium that disappears with development (134, 135). The bony fish bulbus arteriosus might thus be homologous to the shark conus arteriosus and amphibian/mammalian bulbus cordis.' [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM and Christoffels VM, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiol Rev (2003)'] ancestor: bulbus cordis rostral half 'The conus arteriosus is considered a component part of the heart because it has a myocardial wall and lies within the pericardial cavity. It is a feature of the evolutionary primitive state. In amphibians it is called the bulbus cordis, a term that is also used for its equivalent in mammalian embryos. The more derived extant bony fish, like the zebrafish, do not have this cardiac compartment. They have a so-called bulbus arteriosus, which is not enclosed by cardiac muscle, but by elastic tissue and smooth muscle, and therefore is considered to be a specialization of the proximal part of the ventral aorta (256). However, similar to the mammalian condition (306, 326, 339), the bulbus arteriosus in zebrafish embryonic hearts is surrounded by myocardium that disappears with development (134, 135). The bony fish bulbus arteriosus might thus be homologous to the shark conus arteriosus and amphibian/mammalian bulbus cordis.' [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM and Christoffels VM, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiol Rev (2003)'] ancestor: spinal cord neural plate ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...)' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: greater sac mesothelium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: omental bursa mesothelium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: spinal cord meninges 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: lens fibres ' (...) the line, or Y, or star sutures common to mammalian lenses, including those of primates. In the case of line or Y sutures, the overlapping of lens fibers in each successive shell is coincident and results in the formation of four or six three-dimensional suture planes that extend from the lens nucleus to the periphery.' [DOI:10.1167/iovs.03-0466 'Sivak JG, Through the lens clearly: phylogeny and development, The Proctor lecture. Investigative ophthalmology and visual science (2004)'] ancestor: hypopharynx [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.596 and Figure 18-21'] ancestor: pericardio-peritoneal canal mesothelium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164 and Figure 4-32'] ancestor: pancreas head 'Hagfish and lampreys may have one or more endocrine buds - and later the vertebrate pancreas develop as independent ventral and dorsal buds that eventually fuse to become one organ.' [DOI:10.1016/j.crvi.2007.03.006 'Madsen OD, Pancreas phylogeny and ontogeny in relation to a 'pancreatic stem cell'. Comptes Rendus Biologies (2007)'] ancestor: lingual swelling 'Most adult amphibians have a tongue, as do all known reptiles, birds and mammals. Thus it is likely that the tongue appeared with the establishment of tetrapods and this structure seems to be related, to some extant, to the terrestrial lifestyle.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00073.x 'Iwasaki S, Evolution of the structure and function of the vertebrate tongue. J Anat (2002)'] ancestor: oesophagus 'The few structural specializations in (adult lampreys) pharynx include complex valves on the external gill openings that direct the tidal flow, and the division of the ancestral pharynx into an oesophagus and a respiratory pharynx.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1996.tb01658.x 'Mallatt J, Ventilation and the origin of jawed vertebrates: a new mouth. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society (1996)'] ancestor: pancreas body 'Hagfish and lampreys may have one or more endocrine buds - and later the vertebrate pancreas develop as independent ventral and dorsal buds that eventually fuse to become one organ.' [DOI:10.1016/j.crvi.2007.03.006 'Madsen OD, Pancreas phylogeny and ontogeny in relation to a 'pancreatic stem cell'. Comptes Rendus Biologies (2007)'] ancestor: pancreas tail 'Hagfish and lampreys may have one or more endocrine buds - and later the vertebrate pancreas develop as independent ventral and dorsal buds that eventually fuse to become one organ.' [DOI:10.1016/j.crvi.2007.03.006 'Madsen OD, Pancreas phylogeny and ontogeny in relation to a 'pancreatic stem cell'. Comptes Rendus Biologies (2007)'] ancestor: lower jaw 'Subsequent vertebrate evolution has also involved major alterations to the pharynx; perhaps the most notable occurred with the evolution of the gnathostomes. This involved substantial modifications to the most anterior pharyngeal segments, with the jaw forming from the first, anterior, pharyngeal segment, while the second formed its supporting apparatus, the hyoid.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: upper jaw 'Subsequent vertebrate evolution has also involved major alterations to the pharynx; perhaps the most notable occurred with the evolution of the gnathostomes. This involved substantial modifications to the most anterior pharyngeal segments, with the jaw forming from the first, anterior, pharyngeal segment, while the second formed its supporting apparatus, the hyoid.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: lateral wall midbrain Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: myelencephalon 'The early development of most vertebrate brains is similar (...). The zebrafish neural tube follows the same basic differentiation pattern as the mammalian neural tube (reference 1); The brain develops from three embryonic enlargements of the neural tube, which later differentiate into five regions. A forebrain differentiates into telencephalon and diencephalon. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, remains undivided. The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Cavities within the brain enlarge to form a series of interconnected ventricles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.381-382', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.500'] ancestor: oropharynx [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) Box essay 13.1 and Box figure I, p.502-503'] ancestor: omental bursa [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: hindgut 'The bilaterian gut is typically a complete tube that opens to the exterior at both ends. It consists of mouth, foregut, midgut, hindgut, and anus (reference 1); Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.203', ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: pinna 'Mammals have a third type of tympanic ear. An external flap, the auricle or pinna, helps funnel sound waves down the external acoustic meatus to the tympanic membrane.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.420'] ancestor: auditory ossicle 'Additional structural analysis within a phylogenetic context has led to the remarkable discovery that in synapsids, thought to be ancestral to mammals, both the quadrate and articular have become reduced and less firmly articulated with their surrounding bones, reducing their jaw-joint-bearing role. This trend culminated with the incorporation of the quadrate, the columella (which remains articulated with the quadrate), and the articular into the expanded middle ear in mammals.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.695'] ancestor: pharynx ' (...) the earliest vertebrates possessed unjointed internal and external branchial arches, and musculature encircling the pharynx.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) Box essay 13.1 and Box figure I, p.502-503'] ancestor: first polar body 'There are a number of characters that occur only among metazoans and therefore evolved in their common ancestor. Such characters are : (...) an oogenesis during which one oocyte and three polar bodies are formed.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.6'] ancestor: second polar body 'There are a number of characters that occur only among metazoans and therefore evolved in their common ancestor. Such characters are : (...) an oogenesis during which one oocyte and three polar bodies are formed.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.6'] ancestor: hindbrain pia mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: midbrain pia mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: spinal cord pia mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: brain pia mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: mantle layer cerebral cortex Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer cerebral cortex Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer cerebral cortex Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: diencephalon pia mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: telencephalon pia mater 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: crus commune epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: lateral semicircular canal epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: right lung hilus [PMID:11233389 'Muster AJ, Idriss RF, Backer CL, The left-side aortic arch in humans, viewed as the end-result of natural selection during vertebrate evolution. Cardiology in the young (2001)'] ancestor: left lung hilus [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.210'] ancestor: left dorsal aorta 'A study of embryos shows that in all vertebrates six arterial arches link the ventral aorta with a pair of lateral dorsal aortae on each side of the body. The latter unite posteriorly to form a single median dorsal aorta wich takes blood to the body.' [ISBN:978-0174480198 'Roberts MBV, Biology: a functional approach (1986) p.572'] ancestor: right dorsal aorta 'A study of embryos shows that in all vertebrates six arterial arches link the ventral aorta with a pair of lateral dorsal aortae on each side of the body. The latter unite posteriorly to form a single median dorsal aorta wich takes blood to the body.' [ISBN:978-0174480198 'Roberts MBV, Biology: a functional approach (1986) p.572'] ancestor: sinus venosus left horn 'Three major adaptations, or 'novel cardiac components', that were not present in the ancestor chordate heart tube can be distinguished in the lower vertebrate heart: the atrium, ventricle, and possibly the muscular sinus venosus.' [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM, Christoffels VM, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiological Reviews (2003)'] ancestor: sinus venosus right horn 'Three major adaptations, or 'novel cardiac components', that were not present in the ancestor chordate heart tube can be distinguished in the lower vertebrate heart: the atrium, ventricle, and possibly the muscular sinus venosus.' [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM, Christoffels VM, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiological Reviews (2003'] ancestor: optic cup inner layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: optic cup outer layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: extraembryonic right vitelline vein 'Within each vertebrate group, the veins compose a few main functional systems that arise embryologically from what seems to be a common developmental pattern. (...) Early in development, three major sets of paired veins are present: the vitelline veins from the yolk sac, the cardinal veins from the body of the embryo itself, and the lateral abdominal veins from the pelvic region. The paired vitelline veins are among the first vessels to appear in the embryo. They arise over the yolk and follow the yolk stalk into the body. They then turn anteriorly, continue along the gut, and enter the sinus venosus.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460'] ancestor: extraembryonic left vitelline vein 'Within each vertebrate group, the veins compose a few main functional systems that arise embryologically from what seems to be a common developmental pattern. (...) Early in development, three major sets of paired veins are present: the vitelline veins from the yolk sac, the cardinal veins from the body of the embryo itself, and the lateral abdominal veins from the pelvic region. The paired vitelline veins are among the first vessels to appear in the embryo. They arise over the yolk and follow the yolk stalk into the body. They then turn anteriorly, continue along the gut, and enter the sinus venosus.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460'] ancestor: embryonic left vitelline vein 'Within each vertebrate group, the veins compose a few main functional systems that arise embryologically from what seems to be a common developmental pattern. (...) Early in development, three major sets of paired veins are present: the vitelline veins from the yolk sac, the cardinal veins from the body of the embryo itself, and the lateral abdominal veins from the pelvic region. The paired vitelline veins are among the first vessels to appear in the embryo. They arise over the yolk and follow the yolk stalk into the body. They then turn anteriorly, continue along the gut, and enter the sinus venosus.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460'] ancestor: embryonic right vitelline vein 'Within each vertebrate group, the veins compose a few main functional systems that arise embryologically from what seems to be a common developmental pattern. (...) Early in development, three major sets of paired veins are present: the vitelline veins from the yolk sac, the cardinal veins from the body of the embryo itself, and the lateral abdominal veins from the pelvic region. The paired vitelline veins are among the first vessels to appear in the embryo. They arise over the yolk and follow the yolk stalk into the body. They then turn anteriorly, continue along the gut, and enter the sinus venosus.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460'] ancestor: mesonephros associated mesenchyme [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.540-543'] ancestor: mesonephros non-tubular part [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.540-543'] ancestor: mesonephric tubule 'As the pronephros regresses, the archinephric duct induces the sequential differentiation of tubules in the more caudal parts of the nephric ridge. (...) Tubules that differentiate in the middle part of the nephric ridge form a kidney called the mesonephros. This kidney functions in the embryos and larvae of all vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.639'] ancestor: nasal epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: cochlear duct 'In gnathostomes, each membranous labyrinth has three semicircular ducts that connect with a chamber known as the utriculus. (...) In all gnathostomes, the utriculus connects ventrally with a larger sac, called the sacculus (...) In most groups of gnathostomes, the caudoventral evagination of the sacculus forms a small lagena, and in some diapsids and mammals the lagena develops into a longer duct. The lagena becomes greatly elongated in therians and coils to form the cochlear duct.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413-414'] ancestor: liver caudate lobe 'The caudate lobe is the only real and constant hepatic lobe of mammals (...) .' [PMID:1610084 'Van Minh T, Galizia G, Lieto E, Anatomy of the caudate lobe of the liver. New aspects and surgical applications. (Article in French) Annales de chirurgie (1992)'] ancestor: liver quadrate lobe [DOI:10.1002/ar.20524 'Hardman RC, Volz DC, Kullman SW, Hinton DE, An in vivo look at vertebrate liver architecture: three-dimensional reconstruction from Medaka (Oryzias latipes). The Anatomical Record (2007)'] ancestor: ventral pharyngeal arch 1 'Subsequent vertebrate evolution has also involved major alterations to the pharynx; perhaps the most notable occurred with the evolution of the gnathostomes. This involved substantial modifications to the most anterior pharyngeal segments, with the jaw forming from the first, anterior, pharyngeal segment, while the second formed its supporting apparatus, the hyoid.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: dorsal pharyngeal arch 1 'Subsequent vertebrate evolution has also involved major alterations to the pharynx; perhaps the most notable occurred with the evolution of the gnathostomes. This involved substantial modifications to the most anterior pharyngeal segments, with the jaw forming from the first, anterior, pharyngeal segment, while the second formed its supporting apparatus, the hyoid.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: lateral wall spinal cord Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: thoracic sympathetic ganglion [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.462-463'] ancestor: embryonic left umbilical vein [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.608 and Figure 19-5'] ancestor: embryonic right umbilical vein [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.608 and Figure 19-5'] ancestor: embryonic left umbilical artery Two umbilical arteries and one vein are characters of the common ancestor of living placental mammals. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: embryonic right umbilical artery Two umbilical arteries and one vein are characters of the common ancestor of living placental mammals. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: primordial germ cell 'The basic assumption is that primitive Metazoa already had germ cells, but no gonads to harbour them (reference 1); In their review, Extavour and Akam (2003) suggested that PGCs can be regarded as homologous across all metazoans. The similar function of these cells, as well as similar structural and molecular characteristics, support this assumption. However, homology implies common origin also, and this is not the case in PGCs (reference 2).' However, for Craniota, primordial germ cells originate as mesodermal cells early in development and migrate to the gonad anlagen (reference 3). [DOI:10.1002/bies.950161213 'Denis H, A parallel between development and evolution: Germ cell recruitment by the gonads. BioEssays (1994)', ISBN:978-0198566694 'p.249 (ref.2) and p.260, Table 13.3 (ref.3)'] ancestor: greater sac cavity [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: lens vesicle cavity ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The optic cup induces the overlying surface ectoderm first to thicken as a lens placode and then to invaginate and form a lens vesicle that differentiates into the lens.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: lens vesicle epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: intraretinal space ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: neural retinal epithelium ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: pigmented retinal epithelium ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: parietal pericardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: visceral pericardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: liver parenchyma 'the (liver) tubular structure (dual layered parenchyma) appears to be conserved among all embryonic vertebrates (...) it is not unlikely that all vertebrate livers share the same fundamental functional unit.' [DOI:10.1002/ar.20524 'Hardman RC, Volz DC, Kullman SW, Hinton DE, An in vivo look at vertebrate liver architecture: three-dimensional reconstruction from Medaka (Oryzias latipes). The Anatomical Record (2007)'] ancestor: metanephric mesenchyme 'When the ureteric buds emerge from the nephric duct, they enter the metanephrogenic mesenchyme. The ureteric buds induce this mesenchymal tissue to condense around them and differentiate into the nephrons of the mammalian kidney. As this mesenchyme differentiates, it tells the ureteric bud to branch and grow.' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.462'] ancestor: ureteric bud 'The first embryonic hint of a metanephros is the formation of the metanephric duct that appears as a ureteric diverticulum arising at the base of preexisting mesonephric duct. The ureteric diverticulum grows dorsally into the posterior region of the nephric ridge. Here it enlarges and stimulates the growth of metanephric tubules that come to make up the metanephric kidney. The metanephros becomes the adult kidney of amniotes, and the metanephric duct is usually called the ureter.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.543'] ancestor: optic II nerve ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup (reference 1); The (optic) stalk persists as the optic nerve (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429', http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/optic+stalk] ancestor: external naris 'In a tetrapod, the nasal sac has an external naris (homologous with the anterior naris of the fish) (...).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.257 and Figure 7.27'] ancestor: choana 'The choana, a unique 'internal nostril' opening from the nasal sac into the roof of the mouth, is a key part of the tetrapod (land vertebrate) respiratory system. It was the first component of the tetrapod body plan to evolve, well before the origin of limbs, and is therefore crucial to our understanding of the beginning of the fish-tetrapod transition. (...) Here we present new material of Kenichthys, a 395-million-year-old fossil fish from China, that provides direct evidence for the origin of the choana and establishes its homology: it is indeed a displaced posterior external nostril that, during a brief transitional stage illustrated by Kenichthys, separated the maxilla from the premaxilla.' [doi:10.1038/nature02843 'Zhu M, Ahlberg PE, The origin of the internal nostril in tetrapodes. Nature (2004)'] ancestor: conus medullaris Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: filum terminale Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: aqueous humour ' (...) we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya (reference 1); Although the eye varies greatly in adaptative details among vertebrates, its basic structure is the same in all. The human eye is representative of the design typical for a tetrapod. (...) A watery aqueous humor fills the spaces in the eye in front of the lens (...) (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.424 and p.426 and p.429 and Figure 12-24'] ancestor: extraocular skeletal muscle 'The ability to rotate the eyeball is common to all vertebrates with well-developed eyes, regardless of the habitat in which they live, so these (extrinsic ocular) muscles tend to be conservative. They change little during the course of evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.331'] ancestor: lens capsule ' (...) we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya (reference 1); Although the eye varies greatly in adaptative details among vertebrates, its basic structure is the same in all. The human eye is representative of the design typical for a tetrapod. (...) A watery aqueous humor fills the spaces in the eye in front of the lens (...) (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.424 and p.426 and p.429 and Figure 12-24'] ancestor: optic disc ' (...) we reach the inescapable conclusion that the last common ancestor of jawless and jawed vertebrates already possessed an eye that was comparable to that of extant lampreys and gnathostomes. Accordingly, a vertebrate camera-like eye must have been present by the time that lampreys and gnathostomes diverged, around 500 Mya (reference 1); Although the eye varies greatly in adaptative details among vertebrates, its basic structure is the same in all. The human eye is representative of the design typical for a tetrapod (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN Jr, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.424 and p.426 and p.429 and Figure 12-24'] ancestor: 1st pharyngeal groove ectoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 1st pharyngeal pouch endoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: pericardial cavity 'In hagfishes a transverse septum extends upward from the ventral body wall posterior to the heart, partly separating an anterior pericardial cavity from a larger peritoneal cavity. (...) These basic relationships have not been modified by urodeles. The small pericardial cavity remains far forward where it is separated by a transverse septum from the principal coelom, which may now be called a pleuroperitoneal cavity because slender lungs are present. (...) The heart (of other tetrapods) is separated from the lungs (and liver if present) by more or less horizontal partitions that have their origin in the embryo as folds on the serous membrane of the right and left lateral body walls. These grow out to join in the midline of the body. They are called lateral mesocardia (birds) or pleuropericardial membranes. Posteriorly they join the transverse septum to form the adult pericardial membrane, or pericardium. (...) In their partitioning of their coelom, embryonic mammals resemble first early fishes (incomplete partition, posterior to heart, consisting of the transverse septum) and then reptiles (pericardium derived from transverse septum and pleuropericardial membranes). Mammals then separate paired pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity by a diaphragm. The ventral portion of this organ comes from the transverse septum. The dorsal portion is derived from the dorsal mesentery and from still another pair of outgrowths from the lateral body wall, the pleuroperitoneal membranes.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.205-206'] ancestor: somatopleure [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.140-142 and Figure 4-16'] ancestor: splanchnopleure [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.140-142 and Figure 4-16'] ancestor: presomitic mesoderm 'It is reasonable to assume that the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates had an amphioxus-like tail bud in its larval stage. This archetypal tail bud would have (...) (3) lacked any component of mesenchyme cells, (4) budded off new mesodermal segments directly, without any intervening zone of presomitic mesoderm (...). Then, early in vertebrate evolution, epithelium-to-mesenchyme interconversions (and the gene networks for effecting them) became prominent features of development. (...) In any case, conspicuous mesenchymal components tended to be added to the vertebrate tail bud itself. In addition, a mesenchymatous presomitic mesoderm (not a part of the tail bud proper) came to intervene between the tail bud and the forming somites.' [DOI:10.1006/dbio.2001.0460 'Schubert M, Holland LZ, Dale Stokes M and Holland ND, Three Amphoxius Wnt Genes (AmphiWnt3, AmphiWnt5, and AmphiWnt6) Associated with the Tail Bud: the Evolution of Somitogenesis in Chordates. Developmental Biology (2001)'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal membrane endoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal pouch endoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal arch mesenchyme derived from neural crest 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: cavity of the pericardio-peritoneal canal [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164 and Figure 4-32'] ancestor: septum transversum hepatic component 'In hagfishes a transverse septum extends upward from the ventral body wall posterior to the heart, partly separating an anterior pericardial cavity from a larger peritoneal cavity. (...) These basic relationships have not been modified by urodeles. The small pericardial cavity remains far forward where it is separated by a transverse septum from the principal coelom, which may now be called a pleuroperitoneal cavity because slender lungs are present. (...) The heart [of other tetrapods] is separated from the lungs (and liver if present) by more or less horizontal partitions that have their origin in the embryo as folds on the serous membrane of the right and left lateral body walls. These grow out to join in the midline of the body. They are called lateral mesocardia (birds) or pleuropericardial membranes. Posteriorly they join the transverse septum to form the adult pericardial membrane, or pericardium. (...) In their partitioning of their coelom, embryonic mammals resemble first early fishes (incomplete partition, posterior to heart, consisting of the transverse septum) and then reptiles (pericardium derived from transverse septum and pleuropericardial membranes). Mammals then separate paired pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity by a diaphragm. The ventral portion of this organ comes from the transverse septum. The dorsal portion is derived from the dorsal mesentery and from still another pair of outgrowths from the lateral body wall, the pleuroperitoneal membranes.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.205-206'] ancestor: septum transversum non-hepatic component 'In hagfishes a transverse septum extends upward from the ventral body wall posterior to the heart, partly separating an anterior pericardial cavity from a larger peritoneal cavity. (...) These basic relationships have not been modified by urodeles. The small pericardial cavity remains far forward where it is separated by a transverse septum from the principal coelom, which may now be called a pleuroperitoneal cavity because slender lungs are present. (...) The heart [of other tetrapods] is separated from the lungs (and liver if present) by more or less horizontal partitions that have their origin in the embryo as folds on the serous membrane of the right and left lateral body walls. These grow out to join in the midline of the body. They are called lateral mesocardia (birds) or pleuropericardial membranes. Posteriorly they join the transverse septum to form the adult pericardial membrane, or pericardium. (...) In their partitioning of their coelom, embryonic mammals resemble first early fishes (incomplete partition, posterior to heart, consisting of the transverse septum) and then reptiles (pericardium derived from transverse septum and pleuropericardial membranes). Mammals then separate paired pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity by a diaphragm. The ventral portion of this organ comes from the transverse septum. The dorsal portion is derived from the dorsal mesentery and from still another pair of outgrowths from the lateral body wall, the pleuroperitoneal membranes.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.205-206'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal groove ectoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal membrane ectoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal arch mesenchyme derived from neural crest 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal groove ectoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal membrane ectoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal membrane endoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 4th pharyngeal groove ectoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 4th pharyngeal pouch endoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 4th pharyngeal arch mesenchyme derived from neural crest 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: pleural cavity 'In hagfishes a transverse septum extends upward from the ventral body wall posterior to the heart, partly separating an anterior pericardial cavity from a larger peritoneal cavity. (...) These basic relationships have not been modified by urodeles. The small pericardial cavity remains far forward where it is separated by a transverse septum from the principal coelom, which may now be called a pleuroperitoneal cavity because slender lungs are present. (...) The heart [of other tetrapods] is separated from the lungs (and liver if present) by more or less horizontal partitions that have their origin in the embryo as folds on the serous membrane of the right and left lateral body walls. These grow out to join in the midline of the body. They are called lateral mesocardia (birds) or pleuropericardial membranes. Posteriorly they join the transverse septum to form the adult pericardial membrane, or pericardium. (...) In their partitioning of their coelom, embryonic mammals resemble first early fishes (incomplete partition, posterior to heart, consisting of the transverse septum) and then reptiles (pericardium derived from transverse septum and pleuropericardial membranes). Mammals then separate paired pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity by a diaphragm. The ventral portion of this organ comes from the transverse septum. The dorsal portion is derived from the dorsal mesentery and from still another pair of outgrowths from the lateral body wall, the pleuroperitoneal membranes.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.205-206'] ancestor: vertebral pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: undifferentiated genital tubercle 'In mammalian embryos, male and female external genitalia develop from the genital tubercle.' [DOI:10.1242/dev.036830 'Seifert AW, Yamaguchi T, Cohn MJ, Functional and phylogenetic analysis shows that Fgf8 is a marker of genital induction in mammals but is not required for external genital development. Development (2009)'] ancestor: vertebral cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: mouth-foregut junction [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) The development of the digestive tract, p.532-533 and Figure 16-1'] ancestor: optic recess [DOI:10.1016/S1534-5807(04)00027-9 'Wilson SW, Houart C, Early steps in the development of the forebrain. Developmental Cell (2004)'] ancestor: lateral wall diencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mural trophectoderm ' (...) the trophoblast develops rapidly so that contact may be made with the maternal uterine tissues when conditions are appropriate. We have here an excellent example of an embryonic adaptation, the development of a structure never present in either adult or embryo of 'lower' vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0721676685 'Romer AS, Parsons T, Vertebrate body (1977) p.105-106'] ancestor: organizer 'The organizer is a central feature of vertebrate embryogenesis. It was first characterized in functional terms in amphibians by Spemann and Mangold (1924), and homologous tissues have since been identified in representatives of most other vertebrate classes, including mammals (the node), birds (Henson's node) and teleost fish (the embryonic shield).' [DOI:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00073.x 'Neidert AH, Panopoulou G and Langeland JA, Amphioxus goosecoid and the evolution of the head organizer and prechordal plate. Evolution and Development (2008)'] ancestor: embryonic umbilical artery Two umbilical arteries and one vein are characters of the common ancestor of living placental mammals. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: spinal cord ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...) (reference 1); The neural tube is destined to differentiate into the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.165'] ancestor: atrium myocardium 'As noted, the hearts of birds and mammals have four chambers that arises from the two chambers (atrium and ventricle) of the fish heart.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: outflow tract myocardium ' (...) (theme) is how the vertebrate cardiovascular system differs from that of the presumptive evolutionary chordate ancestor. (...) At best we can tell there are two essential new ingredients: (1) vertebrates all have a continuous endothelial lining to the heart and vessels and (2) vertebrates have developed a second chamber in the heart, one designed for generating high systemic blood pressure.' [PMID:9187138 'Fishman MC, Chien KR, Fashioning the vertebrate heart: earliest embryonic decisions. Development (1997)'] ancestor: ventricle myocardium 'As noted, the hearts of birds and mammals have four chambers that arises from the two chambers (atrium and ventricle) of the fish heart.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: ureter 'The first embryonic hint of a metanephros is the formation of the metanephric duct that appears as a ureteric diverticulum arising at the base of preexisting mesonephric duct. The ureteric diverticulum grows dorsally into the posterior region of the nephric ridge. Here it enlarges and stimulates the growth of metanephric tubules that come to make up the metanephric kidney. The metanephros becomes the adult kidney of amniotes, and the metanephric duct is usually called the ureter.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.543'] ancestor: atrium endocardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: ventricle endocardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: bulbus cordis myocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: right auricular region myocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: bulbus cordis caudal half endocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: right auricular region endocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: interventricular septum endocardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: extraembryonic mesoderm [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.134 and Figure 4-11'] ancestor: left lung 'Lungs had already developed as paired ventral pockets from the intestine in the ancestor of Osteognathostomata.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.210'] ancestor: neural fold spinal cord ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...)' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: utricle epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: 1st pharyngeal membrane epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: otic placode epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: lower eyelid epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: upper eyelid epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: labyrinth epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: cochlear duct epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: parasympathetic nerve Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: hepatic portal vein 'Adults of all vertebrates lose the vitelline veins and establish a single large hepatic portal vein (...) by the selective retention of parts of the left and right subintestinals and of several anastomoses that occur between them within and just posterior to the liver.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure, Second Edition (1982) p.265'] ancestor: telencephalic ventricle 'The early development of most vertebrate brains is similar (...). The zebrafish neural tube follows the same basic differentiation pattern as the mammalian neural tube (reference 1); The brain develops from three embryonic enlargements of the neural tube, which later differentiate into five regions. A forebrain differentiates into telencephalon and diencephalon. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, remains undivided. The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Cavities within the brain enlarge to form a series of interconnected ventricles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.381-382', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.500'] ancestor: prosencephalic vesicle 'The early development of most vertebrate brains is similar (...). The zebrafish neural tube follows the same basic differentiation pattern as the mammalian neural tube (reference 1); The brain develops from three embryonic enlargements of the neural tube, which later differentiate into five regions. A forebrain differentiates into telencephalon and diencephalon. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, remains undivided. The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Cavities within the brain enlarge to form a series of interconnected ventricles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.381-382', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.500'] ancestor: islet of Langerhans 'Mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians have a pancreas with similar histology and mode of development, while in some fish, the islet cells are segregated as Brockmann bodies.' [PMID:7600975 'Slack JMW, Developmental biology of the pancreas. Development (1995)'] ancestor: ileum 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: colon 'Although all vertebrates have a digestive tract and accessory glands, various parts of this system are not necessarily homologous, analogous, or even present in all species. Therefore, broad comparisons can be best made under the listings of headgut, foregut, midgut, pancreas and biliary system, hindgut.' [ISBN:978-0521617147 'Stevens CE and Hume ID, Comparative physiology of the vertebrate digestive system (2004) p.11'] ancestor: midbrain-hindbrain boundary 'Lampreys also have an MHB [midbrain hindbrain boundary], expressing a similar repertoire of regulatory gene cognates as in gnathostomes.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.02.008 'Murakami Y, Uchida K, Rijli FM and Kuratani S, Evolution of the brain developmental plan: Insights from agnathans. Developmental Biology (2005)'] ancestor: foregut gland [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.497-498 and Figure 13.2'] ancestor: foregut midgut junction gland [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.497-498 and Figure 13.2'] ancestor: oral region gland [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.497-498 and Figure 13.2'] ancestor: diencephalon gland Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: integumental system gland [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.400-405'] ancestor: choroid fissure - optic fissure 'The folded arrangement of the vertebrate retina and RPE [retinal pigment epithelial] provides an evolutionary explanation for the occurrence of the choroid fissure, as proposed more than a century ago. Early in evolution, before the optic cup invaginated, the axons from retinal ganglion cells would simply have run over the surface of the structure. Hence, one can view the optic nerve as having acted rather like a rope in linking the retina to higher centres: the developing eye cup has simply wrapped around this 'rope', and the developing axons have thereby not needed to penetrate the retina.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2283 'Lamb TD, Collin SP and Pugh EN, Evolution of the vertebrate eye: opsins, photoreceptors, retina and eye cup. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2007)'] ancestor: thalamus ' (...) the brain regions of tetrapods, the structures they contain, and their basic organizational features are the same as in fishes.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.484'] ancestor: stomatodaeum gland [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.533 Figure 16-1'] ancestor: extraembryonic left umbilical vein [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.608 and Figure 19-4, D'] ancestor: extraembryonic right umbilical vein [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.608 and Figure 19-4, D'] ancestor: ovary primordial germ cells 'The basic assumption is that primitive Metazoa already had germ cells, but no gonads to harbour them (reference 1); In their review, Extavour and Akam (2003) suggested that PGCs can be regarded as homologous across all metazoans. The similar function of these cells, as well as similar structural and molecular characteristics, support this assumption. However, homology implies common origin also, and this is not the case in PGCs (reference 2).' However, for Craniota, primordial germ cells originate as mesodermal cells early in development and migrate to the gonad anlagen (reference 3). [DOI:10.1002/bies.950161213 'Denis H, A parallel between development and evolution: Germ cell recruitment by the gonads. BioEssays (1994)', ISBN:978-0198566694 'p.249 (ref.2) and p.260, Table 13.3 (ref.3)'] ancestor: testis primordial germ cells 'The basic assumption is that primitive Metazoa already had germ cells, but no gonads to harbour them (reference 1); In their review, Extavour and Akam (2003) suggested that PGCs can be regarded as homologous across all metazoans. The similar function of these cells, as well as similar structural and molecular characteristics, support this assumption. However, homology implies common origin also, and this is not the case in PGCs (reference 2).' However, for Craniota, primordial germ cells originate as mesodermal cells early in development and migrate to the gonad anlagen (reference 3). [DOI:10.1002/bies.950161213 'Denis H, A parallel between development and evolution: Germ cell recruitment by the gonads. BioEssays (1994)', ISBN:978-0198566694 'p.249 (ref.2) and p.260, Table 13.3 (ref.3)'] ancestor: naris Naris refer to the external and interior naris (choana) of tetrapods, and to anterior and posterior naris of zebrafish. It seems now accepted that the structure is homologous: 'The choana, a unique 'internal nostril' opening from the nasal sac into the roof of the mouth, is a key part of the tetrapod (land vertebrate) respiratory system. It was the first component of the tetrapod body plan to evolve, well before the origin of limbs, and is therefore crucial to our understanding of the beginning of the fish-tetrapod transition. (...) Here we present new material of Kenichthys, a 395-million-year-old fossil fish from China, that provides direct evidence for the origin of the choana and establishes its homology: it is indeed a displaced posterior external nostril that, during a brief transitional stage illustrated by Kenichthys, separated the maxilla from the premaxilla.' [doi:10.1038/nature02843 'Zhu M, Ahlberg PE, The origin of the internal nostril in tetrapodes. Nature (2004)'] ancestor: nasolacrimal duct - posterior naris 'The nasolacrimal duct is probably homologous to the posterior (excurrent) naris of actinopterygian fishes.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.256'] ancestor: vomeronasal organ ' (...) the vomeronasal organ is known only in some tetrapods. It is absent in most turtles, crocodiles, birds, some bats, and aquatic mammals. In amphibians, it is in a recessed area off the main nasal cavity. (...) In mammals possesing this organ, it is an isolated area of olfactory membrane within the nasal cavity that is usually connected to the mouth via the nasopalatine duct (reference 1); The opinions concerning the presence and functioning of the vomeronasal organ in humans are controversial. The vomeronasal cavities appear early in human foetuses. (...) Historical examination of the nasal septum revealed the presence of vomeronasal cavities in approximately 70% of adults. In contrast to the situation in other mammals, the organ is not supported by a rigid tube of bone or cartilage (reference 2); (...) the best evidence for the homology of the human VNO to that of other primates (and of mammals in general) is ontogenetic in nature, based on a common embryonic origin from a thickening (vomeronasal primordium) on the medial aspect of each olfactory pit (reference 3); (...) suggesting that lungfish possess a region homologous to the accessory olfactory bulb of tetrapods. Based on these results, it seems appropriate to refer to the recess epithelium as 'a primordium of the vomeronasal organ' (reference 4). ' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.669 (ref.1)', PMID:9866877 'Doving KB, Trotier D, Review: Structure and function of the vomeronasal organ. The Journal of Experimental Biology (1998) (ref.2)', DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19810077.x 'Smith TD, Siegel MI, Bonar CJ, Bhatnagar KP, Mooney MP, Burrows AM, Smith MA, Maico LM, The existence of the vomeronasal organ in postnatal chimpanzees and evidence for its homology with that of humans. J Anat (2001) (ref.3) ', DOI:10.1002/ar.22415 'Nakamuta S, Nakamuta N, Taniguchi K, Taniguchi K, Histological and ultrastructural characteristics of the primordial vomeronasal organ in lungfish. Anat Rec (Hoboken) (2012) (ref.4)'] ancestor: female genital tubercle [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Chapter 21, The reproductive system and reproduction, p.680-682 and Figure 21-23'] ancestor: male genital tubercle [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Chapter 21, The reproductive system and reproduction, p.680-682 and Figure 21-23'] ancestor: outflow tract 'The vertebrate heart is formed from diverse embryonic territories, including the first and second heart fields. The second heart field (SHF) gives rise to the right ventricle and outflow tract, yet its evolutionary origins are unclear. (...) SHF-like territories have been identified in frog, zebrafish, and lamprey, yet evidence for a deeper evolutionary origin remains obscured by the absence of a clear SHF in invertebrates'. [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: whole organism ancestor: rhombomere 'Rhombomeric segmentation is found in all living vertebrates and is of fundamental importance to the development of the vertebrate head.' [DOI:10.1006/dbio.2002.0831 'Mazet F, Shimeld SM, The Evolution of Chordate Neural Segmentation. Developmental Biology (2002)'] ancestor: midgut loop [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.516-520 and Figure 13.28'] ancestor: Rathke's pouch 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: bronchiole [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Chapter 18, Respiration in Mammals, p.596-599'] ancestor: dermomyotome 'Thus, representatives of the agnathan vertebrates, chondrichthyans, and sarcopterygians all have a layer of undifferentiated cells external to the embryonic myotome. In the amniotes, this external cell layer is the dermomyotome. The simplest interpretation of the similar position, morphology, and lack of myosin labeling is that a dermomyotome epithelium is a shared, ancestral vertebrate characteristic.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2006.05079.x 'Devoto SH, Stoiber W, Hammond CL, Steinbacher P, Haslett JR, Barresi MJF, Patterson SE, Adiarte EG and Hughes SM, Generality of vertebrate developmental patterns: evidence for a dermomyotome in fish. Evolution and Development (2006)'] ancestor: lip [DOI:10.1242/dev.01705 'Helms JA, Cordero D, Tapadia MD, New insights into craniofacial morphogenesis. Development (2005) Figure 1'] ancestor: serratus anterior [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: sclerotome 'The vertebrate sclerotome has no equivalent in amphioxus and is a novelty linked with the evolution of the axial skeleton.' [DOI:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4449 'Shimeld SM and Holland PW. Vertebrate innovations. PNAS (2000)'] ancestor: vestibulocochlear VIII ganglion vestibular component [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.456-464 and Figure 13-18'] ancestor: cytotrophoblast The cytotrophoblast is one of the distinctly mammalian tissues that enable the fetus to survive within the maternal uterus. [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p. 353-354 and Figure 11.33'] ancestor: vagus X ganglion [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.456-464 and Figure 13-18'] ancestor: vagus X inferior ganglion 'These (the epibranchial placodes) are focal thickenings of the embryonic ectoderm that form immediately dorsal and caudal of the clefts between the pharyngeal arches in all vertebrates, and they produce the neuroblasts which migrate and condense to form the distal cranial ganglia: the geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia. (...) The one substantial difference between the vertebrate pharyngeal arches and those of the protochordates is the presence of the epibranchial placodes but the evolution of these structures was undoubtedly driven by the endoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: vagus X superior ganglion [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.456-464 and Figure 13-18'] ancestor: hyomandibula - stapes 'This structure (the hyomandibular), on ontogenic grounds alone, can be considered homologous with the amphibian and reptilian columella and the mammalian stapes.' [DOI:10.1017/S0022215100009087 'Gerrie J, The phylogeny of the mammalian tympanic cavity and auditory ossicles. The Journal of Laryngology and Otology (1948)'] ancestor: quadrate - incus 'According to this theory (Reichert-Gaupp theory), the mammalian stapes is derived from the reptilian columella, the incus from the quadrate and the malleus from the articular (...).' [DOI:10.1017/S0022215100009087 'Gerrie J, The phylogeny of the mammalian tympanic cavity and auditory ossicles. The Journal of Laryngology and Otology (1948'] ancestor: anguloarticular - malleus 'According to this theory (Reichert-Gaupp theory), the mammalian stapes is derived from the reptilian columella, the incus from the quadrate and the malleus from the articular (...).' [DOI:10.1017/S0022215100009087 'Gerrie J, The phylogeny of the mammalian tympanic cavity and auditory ossicles. The Journal of Laryngology and Otology (1948'] ancestor: cochlea 'Because achieving high sensitivity is generally advantageous for auditory organs, it is not surprising that evidence for cochlear amplification is also seen in nonmammals. Spontaneous otoacoustic emissions (SOAEs) are narrow-band sound signals emitted from the inner ear, and it is generally assumed that their energy derives from the hair-cell molecular motors underlying cochlear amplification. However, all terrestrial vertebrates studied so far (including amphibians) show very similar SOAEs. The most parsimonious explanation for the universality of this phenomena is that some kind of amplifying mechanism is at least as old as land vertebrates themselves.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(98)80033-0 'Manley GA, Koeppl C, Phylogenetic development of the cochlea and its innervation. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1998)'] ancestor: oculomotor III nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: hypoglossal XII nerve 'Cranial nerves XI and XII evolved in the common ancestor to amniotes (non-amphibian tetrapods) thus totalling twelve pairs.' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerves] ancestor: trigeminal V ganglion [DOI:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.10.057 'Murakami Y, Kuratani S, Brain segmentation and trigeminal projections in the lamprey; with reference to vertebrate brain evolution. Brain Research Bulletin (2008)' ] ancestor: vestibulocochlear VIII nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: vestibulocochlear VIII ganglion ' (During the development of the inner ear in a vertebrate embryo) As the otic placode invaginates into a cup neuroblasts delaminate from the anterior ventral aspect of the otic epithelium to give rise to neurons of the vestibulocochlear (statoacoustic) ganglion of cranial nerve VIII.' [PMID:21452441 'Park BY, Saint-Jeannet JP, Induction and Segregation of the Vertebrate Cranial Placodes. Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: abducens VI nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: tensor tympani muscle 'The division of the adductor mandibulae in the various lines of tetrapod evolution correlates with divergences in their methods of feeding. (...) As the jaws become stronger and their movements more complex in the line of evolution toward mammals, the adductor complex becomes divided into several distinct muscles (temporalis, masseter, pterygoideus, tensor tympani, tensor veli palati).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.333-334 and same reference Table 10-4'] ancestor: accessory XI nerve 'Cranial nerves XI and XII evolved in the common ancestor to amniotes (non-amphibian tetrapods) thus totalling twelve pairs.' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerves] ancestor: clitoris [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Chapter 21, The reproductive system and reproduction, p.680-682 and Figure 21-23'] ancestor: glossopharyngeal IX nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: glossopharyngeal IX ganglion 'These (the epibranchial placodes) are focal thickenings of the embryonic ectoderm that form immediately dorsal and caudal of the clefts between the pharyngeal arches in all vertebrates, and they produce the neuroblasts which migrate and condense to form the distal cranial ganglia: the geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia. (...) The one substantial difference between the vertebrate pharyngeal arches and those of the protochordates is the presence of the epibranchial placodes but the evolution of these structures was undoubtedly driven by the endoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: olfactory I nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: trigeminal V nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: trochlear IV nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: facial VII nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: facial VII ganglion 'These (the epibranchial placodes) are focal thickenings of the embryonic ectoderm that form immediately dorsal and caudal of the clefts between the pharyngeal arches in all vertebrates, and they produce the neuroblasts which migrate and condense to form the distal cranial ganglia: the geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia. (...) The one substantial difference between the vertebrate pharyngeal arches and those of the protochordates is the presence of the epibranchial placodes but the evolution of these structures was undoubtedly driven by the endoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: hepatic sinusoid ' (...) the amphibian liver has characteristics in common with both fish and terrestrial vertebrates. (...) The histological structure of the liver is similar to that in other vertebrates, with hepatocytes arranged in clusters and cords separated by a meshwork of sinusoids and the presence of the traditional triad of portal venule, hepatic arteriole, and bile duct.' [DOI:10.1053/ax.2000.7133 'Crawshaw GJ, Weinkle TK, Clinical and pathological aspects of the amphibian liver. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine (2000)'] ancestor: left lobe hepatic sinusoids [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figure 17-10'] ancestor: right lobe hepatic sinusoids [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figure 17-10'] ancestor: caudate lobe hepatic sinusoids [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figure 17-10'] ancestor: quadrate lobe hepatic sinusoids [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.569-571 and Figure 17-10'] ancestor: diaphragm 'The mammals are characterized by a diaphragm, which separates the thoracic portion of the body cavity from the abdominal region and assists in drawing air into the lungs and forcing it out. Modern reptiles lack a muscular diaphragm and it is reasonable to suppose that the diaphragm developed as a new device that made possible a large degree of oxygen intake for active animals. The change may have taken place during the transition from reptile to mammal (...).' [ISBN:978-0471384618 'Colbert EH, Evolution of the vertebrates: a history of the backboned animals through time (2001) p.278'] ancestor: metanephros cortex [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.636-639'] ancestor: facio-acoustic VII-VIII ganglion complex ancestor: heart right ventricle 'The vertebrate heart is formed from diverse embryonic territories, including the first and second heart fields. The second heart field (SHF) gives rise to the right ventricle and outflow tract, yet its evolutionary origins are unclear. (...) SHF-like territories have been identified in frog, zebrafish, and lamprey, yet evidence for a deeper evolutionary origin remains obscured by the absence of a clear SHF in invertebrates'. [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: heart left ventricle 'The vertebrate heart initially forms as a tube from a population of precursor cells termed the first heart field (FHF). Cells from the adjacent second heart field (SHF) are then progressively added to the developing heart. In avian and mammalian hearts, the FHF contributes mainly to the left ventricle, whereas the SHF gives rise to the outflow tract and large portions of the right ventricle and atria. Both fields arise from common mesodermal progenitors, although the detailed lineage relationships between FHF and SHF remain uncertain.' [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: metanephric nephron 'The primitive form of the vertebrate nephron consists of a vascular filtration surface overlain with podocytes, a specialized coelomic cavity to receive the ultrafiltrate, and a tubule for modification to final urine. Although previously thought to be unique to the vertebrates, this design is now known to be widespread among invertebrates, including most of the protochordates, and especially their larvae.' [DOI:10.1093/icb/34.4.542 'Ruppert EE, Evolutionary Origin of the Vertebrate Nephron. Integrative and Comparative Biology (1994)'] ancestor: zona pellucida - vitelline membrane 'Outside the plasma membrane, three envelopes surround the ovum. The first, the primary egg envelope, lies between the plasma membrane and the surrounding cells of the ovary. The most consistent component of this primary layer is the vitelline membrane, a transparent jacket of fibrous protein. In mammals, the homologous structure is called the zona pellucida.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.159'] ancestor: amnion 'Structures homologous to the four extraembryonic membranes of reptiles and birds appear in mammals: amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.187'] ancestor: cerebral cortex 'Migration of neurons from the basal or striatal portions of the anterior part of the neural tube occurs to varying degrees in different vertebrate classes, but a true cerebral cortex is generally acknowledged to have made its first appearance in reptiles. The definition can be unambiguous, since 'cortex' simply implies the existence of a surface neuronal layer with an overlying 'zonal lamina' or 'molecular' layer containing dendrites and axons, which is separated from the underlying basal 'matrix' by white matter. Although reptilian cerebral cortex does indeed fulfill these conditions in certain locations, the separation from striatal structures is often indistinct, so that it may even be argued that some primitive dipnoans possess a pallium or cortex. Nevertheless, an extensive laminated layer separated by underlying white matter is well represented only in reptiles and mammals.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1969.tb20437.x 'Kruger L, Experimental analyses of the reptilian nervous system. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (1969)'] ancestor: renal system 'Evolution of vertebrate renal anatomy appears quite conservative when compared, for example, to evolution of respiratory and cardiovascular systems in vertebrates. Major anatomical changes in vertebrates kidneys separate those of birds and mammals from kidneys of lower vertebrates. General increase in animal size from fish to mammals is reflected by an increase in total number of nephrons per kidney, rather than by constant change in tubular dimensions.' [ISBN:978-3540428541 'Kapoor BG, Bhavna Khanna, Ichthyology Handbook (2004) p.406'] ancestor: male reproductive system 'By far, sexual reproduction is the more common pattern among living vertebrate forms and its widespread occurrence suggests that it is the plesiomorphic, or primitive, reproductive mode among the vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0792383369 'Lombardi J, Comparative vertebrate reproduction (1998) p.43'] ancestor: female reproductive system 'By far, sexual reproduction is the more common pattern among living vertebrate forms and its widespread occurrence suggests that it is the plesiomorphic, or primitive, reproductive mode among the vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0792383369 'Lombardi J, Comparative vertebrate reproduction (1998) p.43'] ancestor: penis Four amniote lineages (mammals, turtles, squamates, archosaurs) have penis but maybe arising independently in each penis-bearing group. [DOI:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0161 'Kelly DA, Turtle and mammal penis designs are anatomically convergent. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (2004)'] ancestor: phrenic nerve [DOI:10.1111/j.1440-169X.2008.00985.x 'Kuratani S, Evolutionary developmental studies of cyclostomes and the origin of the vertebrate neck. Development, Growth and Differentiation (2008)'] ancestor: membranous labyrinth 'The labyrinth, or inner ear, evolved very early in vertebrate history and, with many variations in configuration but none of basic design and function, has been retained by all vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.366'] ancestor: median lingual swelling 'Most adult amphibians have a tongue, as do all known reptiles, birds and mammals. Thus it is likely that the tongue appeared with the establishment of tetrapods and this structure seems to be related, to some extant, to the terrestrial lifestyle.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00073.x] ancestor: lateral lingual swelling 'Most adult amphibians have a tongue, as do all known reptiles, birds and mammals. Thus it is likely that the tongue appeared with the establishment of tetrapods and this structure seems to be related, to some extant, to the terrestrial lifestyle.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2002.00073.x 'Iwasaki S, Evolution of the structure and function of the vertebrate tongue. J Anat (2002)'] ancestor: thyroid lobe 'Thus, a thyroid capable of forming iodotyrosines and iodothyronines is present in all vertebrates. (...) Certain morphologic changes occur after the biochemical evolution of the thyroid has ceased. In the adult lamprey and in most bony fishes, the gland is not encapsulated. (...) In cartilaginous fish, the thyroid is encapsulated. In the higher vertebrate forms, the thyroid is a one- or two-lobed encapsulated structure.' [http://www.thyroidmanager.org/Chapter1/chapter01.htm] ancestor: right thyroid lobe 'Thus, a thyroid capable of forming iodotyrosines and iodothyronines is present in all vertebrates. (...) Certain morphologic changes occur after the biochemical evolution of the thyroid has ceased. In the adult lamprey and in most bony fishes, the gland is not encapsulated. (...) In cartilaginous fish, the thyroid is encapsulated. In the higher vertebrate forms, the thyroid is a one- or two-lobed encapsulated structure.' [http://www.thyroidmanager.org/Chapter1/chapter01.htm] ancestor: left thyroid lobe 'Thus, a thyroid capable of forming iodotyrosines and iodothyronines is present in all vertebrates. (...) Certain morphologic changes occur after the biochemical evolution of the thyroid has ceased. In the adult lamprey and in most bony fishes, the gland is not encapsulated. (...) In cartilaginous fish, the thyroid is encapsulated. In the higher vertebrate forms, the thyroid is a one- or two-lobed encapsulated structure.' [http://www.thyroidmanager.org/Chapter1/chapter01.htm] ancestor: urachus ancestor: vagal X nerve trunk ancestor: vagus X nerve 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (...) (5) cranial nerves (...) (reference 1); Phylogenetically, the cranial nerves are thought to have evolved from dorsal and ventral nerves of a few anterior spinal nerves that became incorporated into the braincase. Dorsal and ventral nerves fuse in the trunk but not in the head, and they produce two series: dorsal cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) and ventral cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, and XIII) (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.625'] ancestor: allantois 'Structures homologous to the four extraembryonic membranes of reptiles and birds appear in mammals: amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.187'] ancestor: thyroid gland isthmus 'In mammals and in some reptiles, the thyroid is composed of two lobes connected by an isthmus; in birds and amphibians, the thyroid consists of two isolated lobes. (...) Despite these morphological differences, the ontogeny of the thyroid follows the same pattern in all vertebrates (...).' [DOI:10.1210/er.2003-0028 'De Felice M, Di Lauro R, Thyroid development and its disorders: genetics and molecular mechanisms. Endocrine Reviews (2004)'] ancestor: urinary bladder 'In tetrapods, the urinary bladder arises as an outpocketing of the cloaca. (...) The tetrapod urinary bladder appears first among amphibians and is present in Sphenodon, turtles, most lizards, ostriches among birds, and all mammals.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.577-78'] ancestor: metencephalon 'The early development of most vertebrate brains is similar (...). The zebrafish neural tube follows the same basic differentiation pattern as the mammalian neural tube (reference 1); The brain develops from three embryonic enlargements of the neural tube, which later differentiate into five regions. A forebrain differentiates into telencephalon and diencephalon. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, remains undivided. The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Cavities within the brain enlarge to form a series of interconnected ventricles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.381-382', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.500'] ancestor: inner cell mass 'A small sphere of cells known as the inner cell mass lies within the trophoblast (of all eutherian mammals).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.144'] ancestor: glossopharyngeal IX inferior ganglion ancestor: glossopharyngeal IX superior ganglion ancestor: zygote 'As in all metazoans, eumetazoan development begins with a fertilized egg, or zygote.' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.107'] ancestor: thyroglossal duct 'A duct, called the thyroglossal duct in mammals, is considered to be characteristic of thyroid development. The thyroglossal duct, degenerating in many species during late development, marks the way the thyroid primordium relocates during embryonic development from the pharynx to its position deep in the cervical mesenchyme. We cannot exclude that the duct of the endostyle and the thyroglossal duct may have evolved independently, but as they both represent a more or less persistent connection of the organ to the pharynx, it is likely that they are homologous structures.' [DOI:10.1007/s00427-004-0450-0 'Kluge B, Renault N, Rohr KB, Anatomical and molecular reinvestigation of lamprey endostyle development provides new insight into thyroid gland evolution. Development genes and evolution (2005)'] ancestor: intrinsic tongue muscle 'The lamprey head contains another group of muscles, the epi- and hypo-branchial muscles (EBM and HBM), derivatives of anterior trunk myotomes. (...) The origin and the migration pattern of HBM precursors are very similar to that of the gnathostome MPP, especially to that of the tongue muscle precursors. Other evidence of homology of lamprey HBM to the gnathostome tongue muscle is that HBM is innervated by the nerve termed the hypoglossal nerve based on its morphological position associated with the head/trunk interface. (...) The HBM-specific expression of the LampPax3/7 gene is consistent with the homology of this muscle to the gnathostome tongue muscle, or to the hypobranchial series as a whole (including the infrahyoid and possibly the diaphragm in mammals).' [DOI:10.1002/dvdy.20587 'Kusakabe R, Kuratani S, Evolution and developmental patterning of the vertebrate skeletal muscles: perspectives from the lamprey. Developmental Dynamics (2005)'] ancestor: teres major [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: definitive endoderm [DOI:10.1101/gad.607311 'Teo AK, Arnold SJ, Trotter MW, Brown S, Ang LT, Chng Z, Robertson EJ, Dunn NR, Vallier L, Pluripotency factors regulate definitive endoderm specification through eomesodermin. Genes and Development (2011)'] ancestor: ventricular layer alar plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: parasympathetic nervous system 'In general, the teleosts may be considered phylogenetically the first class of vertebrates in which the heart is regulated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic neural pathways.' [DOI:10.1016/S0306-4530(98)00057-2 'Porges SW, Love: an emergent property of the mammalian autonomic nervous system. Psychoneuroendocrinology (1998)'] ancestor: pleuroperitoneal fold 'In hagfishes a transverse septum extends upward from the ventral body wall posterior to the heart, partly separating an anterior pericardial cavity from a larger peritoneal cavity. (...) These basic relationships have not been modified by urodeles. The small pericardial cavity remains far forward where it is separated by a transverse septum from the principal coelom, which may now be called a pleuroperitoneal cavity because slender lungs are present. (...) The heart [of other tetrapods] is separated from the lungs (and liver if present) by more or less horizontal partitions that have their origin in the embryo as folds on the serous membrane of the right and left lateral body walls. These grow out to join in the midline of the body. They are called lateral mesocardia (birds) or pleuropericardial membranes. Posteriorly they join the transverse septum to form the adult pericardial membrane, or pericardium. (...) In their partitioning of their coelom, embryonic mammals resemble first early fishes (incomplete partition, posterior to heart, consisting of the transverse septum) and then reptiles (pericardium derived from transverse septum and pleuropericardial membranes). Mammals then separate paired pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity by a diaphragm. The ventral portion of this organ comes from the transverse septum. The dorsal portion is derived from the dorsal mesentery and from still another pair of outgrowths from the lateral body wall, the pleuroperitoneal membranes.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.205-206'] ancestor: posterior semicircular canal epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: shoulder epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: ventricular layer lateral wall telencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer lateral wall neural tube Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: anterior abdominal wall [DOI:10.1186/1742-9994-8-4 'Schilling N, Evolution of the axial system in craniates: morphology and function of the perivertebral musculature. Frontiers in Zoology (2011)'] ancestor: extraembryonic cavities 'The profound differences in the developmentof the extraembryonic membranes and cavities between primates and rodents may result in comparing cell types of different developmental origins, eventually leading to missinterpretations.' [DOI:10.1387/ijdb.092935md 'Dobreva MP, Pereira PN, Deprest J, Zwijsen A, On the origin of amniotic stem cells: of mice and men. The International Journal of Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: rostral neuropore Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: caudal neuropore Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: roof plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: roof plate diencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: roof plate midbrain Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: roof plate prosencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: roof plate telencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: roof plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: roof plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: roof plate spinal cord Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: pericardial visceral mesothelium 'Found in all vertebrates, the VP (visceral pericardium) is also known as the cardiac epimysium. This outermost layer of the epicardium consists of a thin layer of mesothelial cells over a dense network of collagen and elastin fibers.' [DOI:10.1152/ajpheart.00967.2007 'Jbsis PD, Ashikaga H, Wen H, Rothstein EC, Horvath KA, McVeigh ER, Balaban RS, The visceral pericardium: macromolecular structure and contribution to passive mechanical properties of the left ventricle. American journal of physiology, Heart and circulatory physiology (2007)'] ancestor: hip epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: floor plate midbrain 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: floor plate prosencephalon 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: floor plate diencephalon 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: floor plate telencephalon 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: floor plate metencephalon 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: floor plate myelencephalon 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: floor plate medulla oblongata 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: floor plate spinal cord 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: abdominal external oblique muscle 'Behind the thorax, the lateral group (of muscles in reptiles and mammals) remains essentially as for amphibians. (It breaks into three sheet-like layers: external oblique muscle, the internal oblique, and the transversus). More anteriorly, however, the ribs, now enlarged, penetrate and alter this group of muscles. The transversus is excluded from the thorax and the external and internal obliques become, respectively, the external and internal intercostal muscles, which contribute to the new function of ventilation of the lungs.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.193'] ancestor: abdominal internal oblique muscle 'Behind the thorax, the lateral group (of muscles in reptiles and mammals) remains essentially as for amphibians. (It breaks into three sheet-like layers: external oblique muscle, the internal oblique, and the transversus). More anteriorly, however, the ribs, now enlarged, penetrate and alter this group of muscles. The transversus is excluded from the thorax and the external and internal obliques become, respectively, the external and internal intercostal muscles, which contribute to the new function of ventilation of the lungs.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.193'] ancestor: interventricular groove [DOI:10.1038/nature08324 'Koshiba-Takeuchi K, Mori AD, Kaynak BL, Cebra-Thomas J, Sukonnik T, Georges RO, Latham S, Beck L, Henkelman RM, Black BL, Olson EN, Wade J, Takeuchi JK, Nemer M, Gilbert SF, Bruneau BG, Reptilian heart development and the molecular basis of cardiac chamber evolution. Nature (2009)' ] ancestor: endolymphatic sac 'Many adult anamniotes have an endolymphatic duct that opens onto the surface of the head. In other vertebrates, it either is lost or forms a small, deeply seated endolymphatic sac.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413-414 and Figure 12-15'] ancestor: neural fold midbrain ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: neural fold prosencephalon ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: vitreous humour [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.674 and Figure 17.18'] ancestor: neural crest midbrain 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: neural crest prosencephalon 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: neural crest diencephalon 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: neural crest telencephalon 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: temporal bone [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.258 and Table 7-1'] ancestor: tunica albuginea 'The tunica albuginea testis is the major component of the capsule of mammalian testes. (...) Our results from studying the mole provide evidence that the spatio-temporal pattern of testis development is not perfectly conserved in mammals, since we found differences with respect to the mouse testis organogenesis. This fact is even more significant when we consider that, apart from the mouse, the mole is probably the one of the best-known mammalian species in terms of the genetic control of testis development, implying that more peculiarities would be found if more species were investigated.' [DOI:10.1387/ijdb.072470fc 'Carmona FD, Lupiez DG, Martn JE, Burgos M, Jimnez R, Zurita F, The spatio-temporal pattern of testis organogenesis in mammals - insights from the mole. The International Journal of Developmental Biology (2009)'] ancestor: lower jaw epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: ciliary ganglion 'Little is known about the development of parasympathetic neurons apart from the ciliary ganglion in chicks. Although there are considerable gaps in our knowledge, some of the mechanisms controlling sympathetic and enteric neuron development appear to be conserved between mammals, avians and zebrafish.' [DOI:10.1016/j.autneu.2010.03.002 'Young HM, Cane KN, Anderson CR, Development of the autonomic nervous system: A comparative view. Autonomic Neuroscience : basic and clinical (2010)'] ancestor: lens pit ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. (...) The optic cup induces the overlying surface ectoderm first to thicken as a lens placode and then to invaginate and form a lens vesicle that differentiates into the lens.' The lens pit is an intermediate stage between the lens placode and the lens vesicle. [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429 Figure 12-27'] ancestor: diencephalic part of interventricular foramen Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: telencephalic part of interventricular foramen Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: knee epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: blastocoelic cavity 'In the development of many animals, a hollow blastula stage is formed during early embryogenesis. Such a hollow blastula is even regarded as an autapomorphy of Metazoa and is present already in some sponges.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.150'] ancestor: mouth 'Molecular and developmental cell lineage data suggest that the acoel mouth opening is homologous to the mouth of protostomes and deuterostomes and that the last common ancestor of the Bilateria (the 'urbilaterian') had only this single digestive opening.' [DOI:10.1038/nature07309 'Hejnol A, Martindale MQ, Acoel development indicates the independent evolution of the bilaterian mouth and anus. Nature (2008)'] ancestor: levator operculi - stapedius muscle 'The depressor mandibulae of tetrapods, which opens the jaws, is the homologue of the levator operculi and epihyoidean. In mammals, the depressor mandibulae evolves into the stapedius (...).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.398'] ancestor: pulmonary valve [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 'Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: aortic valve [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 'Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: tricuspid valve 'The mature AV (atrioventricular) valve of the adult zebrafish 2-chambered heart is structurally similar to the mammalian AV valves with stratified ECM (extracellular matrix) and supporting chordae tendineae. Therefore, the major cellular and molecular events of valve development are largely conserved among animals with hearts composed of multiple chambers.' [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 'Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: mitral valve 'The mature AV (atrioventricular) valve of the adult zebrafish 2-chambered heart is structurally similar to the mammalian AV valves with stratified ECM (extracellular matrix) and supporting chordae tendineae. Therefore, the major cellular and molecular events of valve development are largely conserved among animals with hearts composed of multiple chambers.' [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 'Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: heart valve 'Extensive conservation of valve developmental mechanisms also has been observed among vertebrate species including chicken, mouse, and human.' [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 ' Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: aortic valve leaflets 'Extensive conservation of valve developmental mechanisms also has been observed among vertebrate species including chicken, mouse, and human.' [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 ' Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: pulmonary valve leaflets 'Extensive conservation of valve developmental mechanisms also has been observed among vertebrate species including chicken, mouse, and human.' [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 ' Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: tricuspid valve leaflets 'The mature AV (atrioventricular) valve of the adult zebrafish 2-chambered heart is structurally similar to the mammalian AV valves with stratified ECM (extracellular matrix) and supporting chordae tendineae. Therefore, the major cellular and molecular events of valve development are largely conserved among animals with hearts composed of multiple chambers.' [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 'Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: mitral valve leaflets 'The mature AV (atrioventricular) valve of the adult zebrafish 2-chambered heart is structurally similar to the mammalian AV valves with stratified ECM (extracellular matrix) and supporting chordae tendineae. Therefore, the major cellular and molecular events of valve development are largely conserved among animals with hearts composed of multiple chambers.' [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 'Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: masseter 'The division of the adductor mandibulae in the various lines of tetrapod evolution correlates with divergences in their methods of feeding. (...) As the jaws become stronger and their movements more complex in the line of evolution toward mammals, the adductor complex becomes divided into several distinct muscles (temporalis, masseter, pterygoideus, tensor tympani, tensor veli palati).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.333-334 and same reference Table 10-4'] ancestor: spinal nerve Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: extrinsic tongue muscle 'The lamprey head contains another group of muscles, the epi- and hypo-branchial muscles (EBM and HBM), derivatives of anterior trunk myotomes. (...) The origin and the migration pattern of HBM precursors are very similar to that of the gnathostome MPP, especially to that of the tongue muscle precursors. Other evidence of homology of lamprey HBM to the gnathostome tongue muscle is that HBM is innervated by the nerve termed the hypoglossal nerve based on its morphological position associated with the head/trunk interface. (...) The HBM-specific expression of the LampPax3/7 gene is consistent with the homology of this muscle to the gnathostome tongue muscle, or to the hypobranchial series as a whole (including the infrahyoid and possibly the diaphragm in mammals).' [DOI:10.1002/dvdy.20587 'Kusakabe R, Kuratani S, Evolution and developmental patterning of the vertebrate skeletal muscles: perspectives from the lamprey. Developmental Dynamics (2005)'] ancestor: foramen caecum [DOI:10.1210/er.2003-0028 'De Felice M, Di Lauro R, Thyroid development and its disorders: genetics and molecular mechanisms. Endocrine Reviews (2004)'] ancestor: omental bursa cavity [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: quadriceps [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: inner canthus [PMID:8270467 'Findlater GS, McDougall RD, Kaufman MH, Eyelid development, fusion and subsequent reopening in the mouse. J Anat (1993)'] ancestor: yolk sac 'Structures homologous to the four extraembryonic membranes of reptiles and birds appear in mammals: amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.187'] ancestor: right lung accessory lobe [PMID:11233389 'Muster AJ, Idriss RF, Backer CL, The left-side aortic arch in humans, viewed as the end-result of natural selection during vertebrate evolution. Cardiology in the young (2001)'] ancestor: cerebral aqueduct 'The early development of most vertebrate brains is similar (...). The zebrafish neural tube follows the same basic differentiation pattern as the mammalian neural tube (reference 1); The brain develops from three embryonic enlargements of the neural tube, which later differentiate into five regions. A forebrain differentiates into telencephalon and diencephalon. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, remains undivided. The hindbrain divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. Cavities within the brain enlarge to form a series of interconnected ventricles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.381-382', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.500'] ancestor: olfactory lobe ' (In mammals) Odorant detection is mediated by millions of olfactory sensory neurons located in the olfactory epithelium lining the nasal cavity. These neurons transmit sensory signals to the olfactory bulb of the brain, which in turn sends signals to the olfactory cortex.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2004.tb00097.x 'Buck LB, Olfactory receptors and odor coding in mammals. Nutrition Reviews (2008)'] ancestor: trapezius 'The sternomastoid and the three parts of the trapezius are branchiomeric muscles that have secondarily acquired an attachment to the pectoral girdle. They evolved from the fish cucullaris.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.345'] ancestor: lymphatic system 'Tetrapods have evolved distinct lymphatic systems, in which lymphatic capillaries help drain most of the tissues of the body.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.627'] ancestor: hamstring [DOI:10.1666/0094-8373(2000)026<0734:AAATEO>2.0.CO;2 'Hutchinson JR, Gatesy SM, Adductors, abductors, and the evolution of archosaur locomotion. Paleobiology (2000)'] ancestor: transversus abdominis 'Behind the thorax, the lateral group (of muscles in reptiles and mammals) remains essentially as for amphibians. (It breaks into three sheet-like layers: external oblique muscle, the internal oblique, and the transversus). More anteriorly, however, the ribs, now enlarged, penetrate and alter this group of muscles. The transversus is excluded from the thorax and the external and internal obliques become, respectively, the external and internal intercostal muscles, which contribute to the new function of ventilation of the lungs.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.193'] ancestor: deltoid [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: genioglossus 'The lamprey head contains another group of muscles, the epi- and hypo-branchial muscles (EBM and HBM), derivatives of anterior trunk myotomes. (...) The origin and the migration pattern of HBM precursors are very similar to that of the gnathostome MPP, especially to that of the tongue muscle precursors. Other evidence of homology of lamprey HBM to the gnathostome tongue muscle is that HBM is innervated by the nerve termed the hypoglossal nerve based on its morphological position associated with the head/trunk interface. (...) The HBM-specific expression of the LampPax3/7 gene is consistent with the homology of this muscle to the gnathostome tongue muscle, or to the hypobranchial series as a whole (including the infrahyoid and possibly the diaphragm in mammals).' [DOI:10.1002/dvdy.20587, DOI:10.1186/1471-213X-8-24 'Table 7'] ancestor: supraspinatus [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: clavicle 'In early tetrapods, the connecting skull bone, the posttemporal, and adjoining shoulder bones, supracleithrum and postcleithrum (=anocleithrum), are absent, leaving a dermal shoulder girdle composed of the remaining ventral elements: the paired cleithrum and clavicle, and an unpaired midventral interclavicle that joins both halves of the girdle across the midline. (...) Several dermal elements of the shoulder persist in early synapsids. The clavicle and interclavicle are present in therapsids and monotremes, but in marsupials and placentals, the interclavicle is absent, the clavicle often is reduced in size, and the scapula becomes the predominant shoulder element.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.330-333 and Figure 9.18'] ancestor: subscapularis [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: triceps [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: peritoneal cavity 'In hagfishes a transverse septum extends upward from the ventral body wall posterior to the heart, partly separating an anterior pericardial cavity from a larger peritoneal cavity. (...) These basic relationships have not been modified by urodeles. The small pericardial cavity remains far forward where it is separated by a transverse septum from the principal coelom, which may now be called a pleuroperitoneal cavity because slender lungs are present. (...) The heart [of other tetrapods] is separated from the lungs (and liver if present) by more or less horizontal partitions that have their origin in the embryo as folds on the serous membrane of the right and left lateral body walls. These grow out to join in the midline of the body. They are called lateral mesocardia (birds) or pleuropericardial membranes. Posteriorly they join the transverse septum to form the adult pericardial membrane, or pericardium. (...) In their partitioning of their coelom, embryonic mammals resemble first early fishes (incomplete partition, posterior to heart, consisting of the transverse septum) and then reptiles (pericardium derived from transverse septum and pleuropericardial membranes) Mammals then separate paired pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity by a diaphragm. The ventral portion of this organ comes from the transverse septum. The dorsal portion is derived from the dorsal mesentery and from still another pair of outgrowths from the lateral body wall, the pleuroperitoneal membranes.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.205-206'] ancestor: sterno-mastoid 'The sternomastoid and the three parts of the trapezius are branchiomeric muscles that have secondarily acquired an attachment to the pectoral girdle. They evolved from the fish cucullaris.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.345'] ancestor: otic capsule 'Otic capsules develop around the parts of the ear that lie within the chondrocranium. This part of the ear, known as the inner ear, is composed of the semicircular ducts and associated sacs that contain the receptive cells for equilibrium and hearing (reference 1); (...) considerations have led to our rethinking issues related to the origin of several aspects of vertebrate hearing, and to the view that many basic auditory functions evolved very early in vertebrate history, and that the functions observed in more `advanced' vertebrates, such as birds and mammals, are frequently modifications of themes first encountered in fishes, and perhaps even more ancestral animals.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.235', DOI:10.1016/S0378-5955(00)00168-4 'Fay RR, Popper AN, Evolution of hearing in vertebrates: the inner ears and processing. Hearing research (2000)'] ancestor: amniotic cavity [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.352-353'] ancestor: sternum 'Fishes lack a sternum. (...) A sternum is absent in the first fossil tetrapods, but it is present in modern amphibians. (...) Thus, a sternum occurs in some modern amphibians, birds, mammals and archosaurs. However, its absence in the common ancestors to these groups means that it has arisen independently several times within the field of the midventral connective tissue.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.294'] ancestor: right lung caudal lobe [PMID:11233389 'Muster AJ, Idriss RF, Backer CL, The left-side aortic arch in humans, viewed as the end-result of natural selection during vertebrate evolution. Cardiology in the young (2001)'] ancestor: greater sac [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: right lung cranial lobe [PMID:11233389 'Muster AJ, Idriss RF, Backer CL, The left-side aortic arch in humans, viewed as the end-result of natural selection during vertebrate evolution. Cardiology in the young (2001)'] ancestor: skin ' (...) it is well-established that neural crest cells contribute to both the dermal skeleton (craniofacial bone, teeth, and the caudal fin rays of teleosts) and the integument, including craniofacial dermis and all pigment cells outside the retina (...).' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.01043.x 'Vickaryous MK, Sire JY, The integumentary skeleton of tetrapods: origin, evolution, and development. J Anat (2009)'] ancestor: biceps [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.342-343 and Figure 10-20 and Table 10-7'] ancestor: philtrum [DOI:10.1242/dev.01705 'Helms JA, Cordero D, Tapadia MD, New insights into craniofacial morphogenesis. Development (2005) Figure 1'] ancestor: rectus abdominis [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.340-342 and Figure 10-19'] ancestor: marginal layer alar plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer basal plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer lateral wall midbrain Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer lateral wall diencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer hypothalamus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer thalamus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer telencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer olfactory cortex Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer alar plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer basal plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer alar plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer basal plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal membrane 'In all vertebrates, the endodermal epithelium lining each pouch contacts the surface ectoderm of the clefts to form a series of bilayered branchial membranes, that break down in fish to form the gill openings.' [ISBN:978-0124020603 'Kaufman MH and Bard JBL, The anatomical basis of mouse development (1999) p.72'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal membrane 'In all vertebrates, the endodermal epithelium lining each pouch contacts the surface ectoderm of the clefts to form a series of bilayered branchial membranes, that break down in fish to form the gill openings.' [ISBN:978-0124020603 'Kaufman MH and Bard JBL, The anatomical basis of mouse development (1999) p.72'] ancestor: fundus epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: ventricular layer lateral wall midbrain Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer lateral wall diencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer telencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer lateral wall spinal cord Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer epithalamus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer hypothalamus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer thalamus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer olfactory cortex Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer basal plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer alar plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer basal plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer alar plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: ventricular layer basal plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: sciatic nerve Sciatic nerve is a somatic nerve. [DOI:10.1093/icb/icn012 'Lacalli TC, Head organization and the head/trunk relationship in protochordates: problems and prospects. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2008)'] ancestor: pectoralis major [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: radial nerve Radial nerve is a somatic nerve. [DOI:10.1093/icb/icn012 'Lacalli TC, Head organization and the head/trunk relationship in protochordates: problems and prospects. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2008)'] ancestor: polar trophectoderm syncytiotrophoblast In the common ancestor of living placental mammals the interhaemal barrier had a syncytiotrophoblast. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: basal column spinal cord Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: alar column spinal cord Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: central nervous system nerve Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: peripheral nerve Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: pectoralis minor [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: intercostal muscle 'Inspiration by active expansion of the thorax evolved later, in the ancestor of reptiles, birds, and mammals. This was powered originally by the intercostal muscles (as in lizards or crocodilians) and later (in mammals only) by a muscular diaphragm.' [ISBN:978-0262112789 'Kent RD, The MIT Encyclopedia of Communication Disorders (20039 p.56'] ancestor: intercostales externus 'Behind the thorax, the lateral group (of muscles in reptiles and mammals) remains essentially as for amphibians. (It breaks into three sheet-like layers: external oblique muscle, the internal oblique, and the transversus). More anteriorly, however, the ribs, now enlarged, penetrate and alter this group of muscles. The transversus is excluded from the thorax and the external and internal obliques become, respectively, the external and internal intercostal muscles, which contribute to the new function of ventilation of the lungs.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.193'] ancestor: intercostales internus 'Behind the thorax, the lateral group (of muscles in reptiles and mammals) remains essentially as for amphibians. (It breaks into three sheet-like layers: external oblique muscle, the internal oblique, and the transversus). More anteriorly, however, the ribs, now enlarged, penetrate and alter this group of muscles. The transversus is excluded from the thorax and the external and internal obliques become, respectively, the external and internal intercostal muscles, which contribute to the new function of ventilation of the lungs.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.193'] ancestor: mantle layer alar plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer basal plate myelencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer alar plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer basal plate medulla oblongata Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer lateral wall midbrain Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer lateral wall spinal cord Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer lateral wall diencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer epithalamus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer hypothalamus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer thalamus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer telencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer olfactory cortex Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer alar plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer basal plate metencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: segmental spinal nerve Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: infraspinatus [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: ulnar nerve [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.1997.19030447.x 'Koizumi M, Sakai T, On the morphology of the brachial plexus of the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and the echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus). Journal of Anatomy (1997)'] ancestor: ductus arteriosus 'On the other hand, in the sister clade of the actinopterygians, the sarcopterygians, the gill circulation is supplemented with lung ventilation. As a result, the pulmonary artery and vein and a functional ductus arteriosus arose as a major evolutionary innovation from the sixth arch, giving the organism a flexible shunt to balance blood supply to and from gills and lungs according to environmental conditions.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: ductus venosus [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.485-487 and Figure 12.42'] ancestor: spinal nerve plexus [DOI:10.1038/ncomms1045 'Ma LH, Gilland E, Bass AH, Baker R, Ancestry of motor innervation to pectoral fin and forelimb. Nature Communication (2010)'] ancestor: lumbosacral plexus 'To reach the muscles, dermatomes, and other structures of the limbs, some of the neurons in the spinal nerves come together in the plexus at the base of the limb. Such plexuses occur in all gnathostomes, and they reach their highest complexity among mammals and birds in which the cervical plexus supplies many ventral neck muscles, the brachial plexus supplies the pectoral appendage, a lumbosacral plexus supplies the pelvic appendage, and a coccygeal plexus supplies some of the pelvic muscles.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.436'] ancestor: membranous part interventricular septum Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: temporalis 'The division of the adductor mandibulae in the various lines of tetrapod evolution correlates with divergences in their methods of feeding. (...) As the jaws become stronger and their movements more complex in the line of evolution toward mammals, the adductor complex becomes divided into several distinct muscles (temporalis, masseter, pterygoideus, tensor tympani, tensor veli palati).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.333-334 and Table 10-4'] ancestor: latissimus dorsi [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: platysma 'One of these (facial muscles in mammals), the platysma, is an unspecialized muscle derived from the hyoid arch.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.398'] ancestor: endocardial cushion ' (Cardiac valve formation in vertebrates) In response to a myocardial signal, endocardial cells at chamber boundaries take on a mesenchymal character, delaminate and migrate into the cardiac jelly. There, they form an endocardial cushion that is later remodelled into a valve.' [DOI:10.1038/35047564 'Stainier DYR, Zebrafish genetics and vertebrate heart formation. Nature Reviews Genetics (2001) Figure 3'] ancestor: diaphragm dome 'In mammals, the diaphragm muscle divides the thoracoabdominal cavity into thorax and abdomen. In most mammals, the diaphragm is a flat sheet with muscle fibers radiating outward from a central tendon, and the diaphragm's apposition to the cranial surface of the liver gives it a dome-shape. Muscle fiber contraction reduces the curvature of the dome, thereby expanding the thoracic cavity and aspirating air into the lungs.' [DOI:10.1016/j.resp.2006.06.003 'Brainerd EL, Owerkowicz T, Functional morphology and evolution of aspiration breathing in tetrapods. Respiratory physiology and neurobiology (2006)'] ancestor: right lung vascular element [PMID:11233389 'Muster AJ, Idriss RF, Backer CL, The left-side aortic arch in humans, viewed as the end-result of natural selection during vertebrate evolution. Cardiology in the young (2001)'] ancestor: heart cardiac jelly [DOI:10.1038/35047564 'Stainier DYR, Zebrafish genetics and vertebrate heart formation. Nature Reviews Genetics (2001) Figure 3'] ancestor: bulbus cordis caudal half cardiac jelly [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: left atrium cardiac jelly [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: right atrium cardiac jelly [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: outflow tract cardiac jelly [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: atrium cardiac jelly [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: bulbus cordis rostral half cardiac jelly [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: ventricle cardiac jelly [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: digit 'Our reinterpretation of the distal fin endoskeleton of Panderichthys removes the final piece of evidence supporting the formerly popular hypothesis that tetrapod digits are wholly new structures without homologues in sarcopterygian fish fins. This hypothesis, which was based partly on the complete absence of plausible digit homologues in Panderichthys (then the closest known relative of tetrapods), has already been called into question by the discovery of digit-like radials in Tiktaalik and the fact that Hox gene expression patterns closely resembling those associated with digit formation in tetrapods occur in the distal fin skeletons of paddlefish and Australian lungfish. Our new data show that Panderichthys is not an anomaly: like Tiktaalik and other fish members of the Tetrapodomorpha, it has distal radials that can be interpreted as digit homologues.' [DOI:10.1038/nature07339 'Boisvert CA, Mark-Kurik E and Ahlberg PE, The pectoral fin of Panderichthys and the origin of digits. Nature (2008)'] ancestor: metanephros pelvis 'The ureteric bud itself forms the collecting tubules and the ureter that drain the adult kidney. This type of kidney, called the metanephros, occurs in all adult amniotes.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.639'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal arch ectoderm 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: metatarsus pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: radius-ulna pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: humerus pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: femur pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: foot phalanx pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: metacarpus pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: hand phalanx pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: carpus pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: stapes pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: incus pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: malleus pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: basioccipital pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: scapula pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: sternebral bone pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: ischial pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: exoccipital pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: iliac pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: pubic pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: pharyngeal pouch 3 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M and Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: pharyngeal pouch 2 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M and Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: 4th pharyngeal groove [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 1st pharyngeal groove 'In all jawed vertebrates the first arch forms the jaw, while the second arch forms the hyoid apparatus. These two arches are separated by the first pharyngeal pouch and cleft.' [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: pharyngeal pouch 1 'In all jawed vertebrates the first arch forms the jaw, while the second arch forms the hyoid apparatus. These two arches are separated by the first pharyngeal pouch and cleft.' [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: pharyngeal pouch 4 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M and Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal groove [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal groove [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: acetabular region 'During the transformation from the osteolepiform fins to tetrapod limbs, the appendages and girdles underwent a number of radical changes. The pelvic girdle became a weight-bearing structure by evolution of an ischium, a full mesio-ventral contact between the two sides of the girdle, an ilium, and a contact between the vertebral column and the girdle through a sacral rib. Fore- and hindlimbs shifted laterally by reorientation of the glenoid and the acetabulum.' [DOI:10.1038/nature04119 'Boisvert CA, The pelvic fin and girdle of Panderichthys and the origin of tetrapod locomotion. Nature (2005)'] ancestor: cardiogenic plate ' (In vertebrates) The embryonic mesoderm is the source of both the cardiogenic plate, giving rise to the future myocardium as well as the endocardium that will line the system on the inner side.' [PMID:15611355 'Gittenberger-de Groot AC, Bartelings MM, Deruiter MC, Poelmann RE, Basics of cardiac development for the understanding of congenital heart malformations. Pediatric Research (2005)'] ancestor: labial swelling Genital labioscrotal swellings are the mammal embryonic structures that generate the male scrotum or the female labia majora. [ISBN:978-0813815541 'Schatten H, Constantinescu G, Comparative Reproductive Biology (2007) p.1-4'] ancestor: tunica vasculosa lentis 'Soon after it forms, the mammalian lens becomes invested with a network of capillaries. (...) The capillary network on the posterior of the lens is the tunica vasculosa lentis (TVL).' [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2007.08.014 'Beebe DC, Maintening transparency: A review of the developmental physiology and pathophysiology of two avascular tissues. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2008) Fig.1'] ancestor: trophectoderm ' (...) the trophoblast develops rapidly so that contact may be made with the maternal uterine tissues when conditions are appropriate. We have here an excellent example of an embryonic adaptation, the development of a structure never present in either adult or embryo of 'lower' vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0721676685 'Romer AS, Parsons TS, Vertebrate body (1977) p.105-106'] ancestor: polar trophectoderm ' (...) the trophoblast develops rapidly so that contact may be made with the maternal uterine tissues when conditions are appropriate. We have here an excellent example of an embryonic adaptation, the development of a structure never present in either adult or embryo of 'lower' vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0721676685 'Romer AS, Parsons TS, Vertebrate body (1977) p.105-106'] ancestor: respiratory epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: pulmonary artery 'On the other hand, in the sister clade of the actinopterygians, the sarcopterygians, the gill circulation is supplemented with lung ventilation. As a result, the pulmonary artery and vein and a functional ductus arteriosus arose as a major evolutionary innovation from the sixth arch, giving the organism a flexible shunt to balance blood supply to and from gills and lungs according to environmental conditions.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: metanephric collecting duct [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.542-543 and Figure 14.6'] ancestor: erector spinae [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.339-341 and Figure 10-17'] ancestor: otocyst epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: endolymphatic sac epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: submandibular gland epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: forelimb stylopodium epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: hand interdigital region Interdigital regions are of great importance in tetrapod limb development. [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.523-524'] ancestor: foot interdigital region Interdigital regions are of great importance in tetrapod limb development. [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.523-524'] ancestor: hand interdigital epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: foot interdigital epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: elbow joint [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.193 and Figure 5-14'] ancestor: arytenoid pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: interventricular septum myocardium Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: jugular lymph sac 'Lymph hearts are pulsatile organs, present in lower vertebrates, that function to propel lymph into the venous system. Although they are absent in mammals, the initial veno-lymphatic plexus that forms during mammalian jugular lymph sac development has been described as the vestigial homologue of the nascent stage of ancestral anterior lymph hearts.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2010.01.002 'Peyrot SM, Martin BL, Harland RM, Lymph heart musculature is under distinct developmental control from lymphatic endothelium. Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: hip joint [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.193 and Figure 5-14'] ancestor: shoulder joint [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.193 and Figure 5-14'] ancestor: knee joint [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.193 and Figure 5-14'] ancestor: illopsoas [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: neural crest spinal cord 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...)' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: roof plate rhombomeres Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: floor plate hindbrain 'In summary, the available data for tunicates, amphioxus, and vertebrates indicate that a floorplate-like structure was already present in the proximate invertebrate ancestor of the vertebrates and that the genetic mechanisms for DV patterning of the nerve cord were also largely in place.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: laterall wall rhombomeres Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: maxilla 'Although the presence of a tooth-bearing outer buccal arcade (premaxilla, maxilla, dentary) is cited as a common character of Osteichthyes, dipnoans lack all three bones (...) (reference 1).' Maxilla is one of the bones that formed a dermal roof and palate in the dermatocranium of early tetrapods (reference 2). [ISBN:978-3540428541 'Kapoor BG, Bhavna Khanna, Ichthyology Handbook (2004) p.105', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.246 and Figure 7-12'] ancestor: dentary 'Of all these bones [dentary, splenials, coronoids, angular, surangular and prearticular], only the dentary remains in the lower jaw of a mammal.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.248'] ancestor: primary palate epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: brachialis [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.342-343 and Figure 10-20 and Table 10-7'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal pouch endoderm [DOI:10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.01.022 'Grevellec A, Tucker AS, The pharyngeal pouches and clefts: development, evolution, structure and derivatives. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology (2010)'] ancestor: foot digit epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: hand digit epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: main bronchus epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: rectum epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: nasopharynx epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: superior semicircular canal epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: palatal shelf epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: hindlimb stylopodium epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: endolymphatic appendage epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: elbow epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: trachea epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: medullary tubule [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.648 and Figure 20-13, B'] ancestor: hindlimb zeugopodium epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: 4th pharyngeal arch mesenchyme 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: median lingual swelling epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: lateral lingual swelling epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal arch ectoderm 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: apical ectodermal ridge forelimb 'Pectoral and pelvic fins are homologous to the tetrapod fore and hindlimb, respectively. (...) The zebrafish AER [apical ectodermal ridge] is an apical ectodermal thickening at the distal tip of the fin bud and consists of wedge-shaped cells of the basal stratum. The AER is observed only transiently, and from 36 hpf onwards the cells of this region form the apical fold (AF), which consists of a dorsal and a ventral layer of cylindrically-shaped ectodermal cells extending from the anterior to the posterior fin margin. Despite the change in shape, the AF still carries out the same functions as the AER. Indeed, although the AER receives its name from its characteristic shape, being composed of a pseudostratified ectoderm in the chicken and a polystratified ectoderm in the mouse, this independence of AER morphology from its function is also observed in tetrapods. The AF also expresses similar molecular markers to the tetrapod AER, suggesting that it fulfills similar functions in the fin as the AER does in tetrapod limbs.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1440-169X.2007.00942.x] ancestor: apical ectodermal ridge hindlimb 'Pectoral and pelvic fins are homologous to the tetrapod fore and hindlimb, respectively. (...) The zebrafish AER [apical ectodermal ridge] is an apical ectodermal thickening at the distal tip of the fin bud and consists of wedge-shaped cells of the basal stratum. The AER is observed only transiently, and from 36 hpf onwards the cells of this region form the apical fold (AF), which consists of a dorsal and a ventral layer of cylindrically-shaped ectodermal cells extending from the anterior to the posterior fin margin. Despite the change in shape, the AF still carries out the same functions as the AER. Indeed, although the AER receives its name from its characteristic shape, being composed of a pseudostratified ectoderm in the chicken and a polystratified ectoderm in the mouse, this independence of AER morphology from its function is also observed in tetrapods. The AF also expresses similar molecular markers to the tetrapod AER, suggesting that it fulfills similar functions in the fin as the AER does in tetrapod limbs.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1440-169X.2007.00942.x] ancestor: otic pit epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal arch endoderm 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: 3rd pharyngeal arch mesenchyme 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: mammary gland epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: 4th pharyngeal arch endoderm 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: 4th pharyngeal arch ectoderm 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: forelimb zeugopodium epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: sublingual gland epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal arch mesenchyme 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: 2nd pharyngeal arch endoderm 'In all vertebrates, the pharyngeal apparatus develops from a series of bulges found on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches, which consist of a number of different embryonic cell types. Each arch has an external covering of ectoderm and inner covering of endoderm, and between these a mesenchymal filling of neural crest with a central core of mesoderm.' [DOI:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19910133.x 'Graham A. The development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2001)'] ancestor: jugular foramen [DOI:10.1126/science.1058476 'Luo ZX, Crompton AW, Sun AL, A new mammaliaform from the early Jurassic and evolution of mammalian characteristics. Science (2001)'] ancestor: pars tuberalis 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: accessory XI nerve spinal component 'Cranial nerves XI and XII evolved in the common ancestor to amniotes (non-amphibian tetrapods) thus totalling twelve pairs.' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerves] ancestor: neural lumen '(...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: humerus cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: Meckel's cartilage pre-cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: carpus cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: basioccipital cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: scapula cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: iliac cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: medial rectus extraocular muscle 'The ability to rotate the eyeball is common to all vertebrates with well-developed eyes, regardless of the habitat in which they live, so these [extrinsic ocular] muscles tend to be conservative. They change little during the course of evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.331'] ancestor: dorsal rectus extraocular muscle 'The ability to rotate the eyeball is common to all vertebrates with well-developed eyes, regardless of the habitat in which they live, so these [extrinsic ocular] muscles tend to be conservative. They change little during the course of evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.331'] ancestor: lateral rectus extraocular muscle 'The ability to rotate the eyeball is common to all vertebrates with well-developed eyes, regardless of the habitat in which they live, so these [extrinsic ocular] muscles tend to be conservative. They change little during the course of evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.331'] ancestor: ventral rectus extraocular muscle 'The ability to rotate the eyeball is common to all vertebrates with well-developed eyes, regardless of the habitat in which they live, so these [extrinsic ocular] muscles tend to be conservative. They change little during the course of evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.331'] ancestor: dorsal oblique extraocular muscle 'The ability to rotate the eyeball is common to all vertebrates with well-developed eyes, regardless of the habitat in which they live, so these [extrinsic ocular] muscles tend to be conservative. They change little during the course of evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.331'] ancestor: ventral oblique extraocular muscle 'The ability to rotate the eyeball is common to all vertebrates with well-developed eyes, regardless of the habitat in which they live, so these [extrinsic ocular] muscles tend to be conservative. They change little during the course of evolution.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.331'] ancestor: pulmonary vein 'On the other hand, in the sister clade of the actinopterygians, the sarcopterygians, the gill circulation is supplemented with lung ventilation. As a result, the pulmonary artery and vein and a functional ductus arteriosus arose as a major evolutionary innovation from the sixth arch, giving the organism a flexible shunt to balance blood supply to and from gills and lungs according to environmental conditions.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: pulmonary trunk 'As in birds, the conus arteriosus split during embryonic development in mammals to produce the pulmonary trunk and single aortic trunk of the adult.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: ductus deferens 'The continuation of the archinephric duct, now called the deferent duct, extends caudally to the cloaca or to the part of the mammalian urethra that is derived from the cloaca.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.670'] ancestor: oviduct 'In all remaining vertebrates (i.e., coelacanths, lungfishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals), the oviduct arises in ontogeny as a longitudinal, groovelike invagination of the coelomic epithelium on the lateral surface of the mesonephros.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.687-688'] ancestor: uterus 'An infundibulum, uterine tube, uterus, and vagina also differentiate along the oviducts of eutherian mammals.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.678'] ancestor: vagina 'The distal end of the oviducts differentiates as a vagina in Metatheria and Eutheria.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.688'] ancestor: adrenal gland - interrenal gland 'All craniates have groups of cells homologous to the mammalian adrenocortical and chromaffin tissues, but they are scattered in and near the kidneys in fishes. (...) The cortical and chromaffin tissues come together to form adrenal glands in tetrapods.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.518 and Figure 15-9'] ancestor: vertebral column 'Vertebrata is characterized by three synapomorphies. First, vertebrates have a backbone composed of vertebrae (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.53'] ancestor: vertebra 'In contrast to lampreys and jawed vertebrates, hagfishes were thought to lack vertebrae. Now, long overlooked vertebral rudiments have been analysed in hagfish, suggesting that vertebrae existed in the last common ancestor of all vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1016/j.cub.2011.07.014 'Janvier P, Comparative anatomy: all vertebrates do have vertebrae. Current Biology (2011)'] ancestor: semicircular canal 'In gnathostomes, each membranous labyrinth has three semicircular ducts that connect with a chamber known as the utriculus. These ducts are sometimes called canals, but technically the term semicircular canal applies to the spaces in the osseus labyrinth in which the semicircular ducts lie.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.414'] ancestor: auditory tube 'The tympanic cavity and auditory tube of an amniote develop from the first embryonic pharyngeal pouch, so they are homologous to the first gill pouch, or spiracle, of a fish. We are uncertain whether this homology strictly applies to the middle ear cavity and auditory tube of lissamphibians, which show certain peculiarities in their development.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.417'] ancestor: tympanic membrane 'In particular, a tympanic membrane was not present in the earliest tetrapods (...). An ear utilizing a tympanic membrane evolved independently at least three times in tetrapods: (1) in the lineage that leads to anurans (frogs), (2) in the line of evolution to turtles and diapsids, and (3) in the late synapsid lineage that gave rise to mammals.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.418'] ancestor: otic pit 'The inner ear develops embryonically in all vertebrates as an invagination of the ectodermal otic placode to form an otic vesicle.' The otic pit is an intermediate stage between the otic placode and otic vesicle. [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413 and Figure 12-14'] ancestor: otic vesicle 'The inner ear develops embryonically in all vertebrates as an invagination of the ectodermal otic placode to form an otic vesicle.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413'] ancestor: lacrimal bone - infraorbital 1 'The infraorbital bone 1 of actinopterygians is homologous with the lacrimal bone (...).' [ISBN:978-3899370805 'Arratia G, Schultze HP, Wilson MVH, Mesozoic Fishes 4 - Homology and Phylogeny (2008) p.23-48'] ancestor: supraoccipital bone [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.237 Table 7.1'] ancestor: exoccipital bone [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.237 Table 7.1'] ancestor: basioccipital bone [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.237 Table 7.1'] ancestor: orbitosphenoid [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.237 Table 7.1'] ancestor: ulna cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: pectoral girdle 'The pectoral girdle is clearly of dual origin, composed of dermal as well as endochondral bones. The endochondral component, the scapulocoracoid, evolved by fusion or enlargment of several basal fin elements. (...) The dermal component of the shoulder girdle evolved from dermal bones of the body's surface. (...) Like endochondral bones, these dermal bones were passed along to tetrapods (...).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.336 and Figure 9.18'] ancestor: extraembryonic umbilical artery Two umbilical arteries and one vein are characters of the common ancestor of living placental mammals. [DOI:10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.029 'Mess A, Carter AM, Evolution of the placenta during the early radiation of placental mammals. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2007)'] ancestor: humerus 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: femur 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: tarsus 'The three main outgroup taxa of tetrapods, panderichthyids, osteolepiforms, and rhizodontids, have endoskeletal elements corresponding to the stylo- and zeugopodial elements in a tetrapod limb. In addition, there are elements that share the position and possibly the developmental derivation of the ulnare and the intermedium. From these observations, most authors have concluded that the stylo- and zeugopodial elements as well as the proximal mesopodial elements have counterparts in the fins of tetrapod ancestors, but there are no indications of wrist or ankle joints.' [DOI:10.1002/jez.1100 'Wagner GP, Chiu C, The tetrapod limb: A hypothesis on its origin. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) (2001)'] ancestor: carpus 'The three main outgroup taxa of tetrapods, panderichthyids, osteolepiforms, and rhizodontids, have endoskeletal elements corresponding to the stylo- and zeugopodial elements in a tetrapod limb. In addition, there are elements that share the position and possibly the developmental derivation of the ulnare and the intermedium. From these observations, most authors have concluded that the stylo- and zeugopodial elements as well as the proximal mesopodial elements have counterparts in the fins of tetrapod ancestors, but there are no indications of wrist or ankle joints.' [DOI:10.1002/jez.1100 'Wagner GP, Chiu C, The tetrapod limb: A hypothesis on its origin. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) (2001)'] ancestor: optic pit ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles (reference 1); The first morphological sign of eye development in vertebrates is the bilateral evagination of diencephalon in the early neurula. In mammals, this is marked by the appearance of the optic pit, whereas in fish and amphibians a bulging of the optic primordia is observed. Continued evagination of the optic primordia leads to the formation of the optic vesicles (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429', DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.17.1.255 'Chow RL and Lang RA, Early eye development in vertebrates. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology (2001)'] ancestor: lens vesicle ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The optic cup induces the overlying surface ectoderm first to thicken as a lens placode and then to invaginate and form a lens vesicle that differentiates into the lens.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retinal photoreceptor layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retinal ganglion cell layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retinal inner nuclear layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retinal inner plexiform layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retina nerve fiber layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retinal outer nuclear layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retinal outer plexiform layer ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retina photoreceptor layer inner segment ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: retina photoreceptor layer outer segment ' (...) an essentially similar sequence of events occurs during the embryonic development of the vertebrate eye. The eye initially develops as a single median evagination of the diencephalon that soon bifurcates to form the paired optic vesicles. As each optic vesicle grows towards the body surface, its proximal part narrows as the optic stalk, and its distal part invaginates to form a two-layered optic cup. (...) The outer layer of the optic cup becomes the pigment layer of the retina, whereas the inner layer differentiates into the photoreceptive cells and neuronal layers of the retina.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.429'] ancestor: accessory XI nerve cranial component 'Cranial nerves XI and XII evolved in the common ancestor to amniotes (non-amphibian tetrapods) thus totalling twelve pairs.' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerves] ancestor: corpus striatum 'Thus, certain telencephalic characters - such as the presence of a pallium divided into lateral, dorsal, and medial formations and a subpallium divided into striatum and septum - appear to characterize all vertebrates. They are primitive characters and are homologous among all vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.ne.04.030181.001505, ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.487 Figure 14-10'] ancestor: pons 'During the embryonic development of birds and mammals, neuroblasts migrate from the cerebellum into the ventral part of the rhombencephalon and differentiate into pontine and other nuclei, which relay information from between the cerebrum and cerebellum, and a conspicuous band of transverse fibers. This region is known as the pons. A pons does not differentiate in reptiles and anamniotes (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.474'] ancestor: hippocampus [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.487 Figure 14-10'] ancestor: pars intermedia 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: median eminence 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: pars nervosa 'It (the hypophysis) develops embryonically in all vertebrates from two ectodermal evaginations that meet and unite. An infundibulum grows ventrally from the diencephalon of the brain, and Rathke's pouch extends dorsally from the roof of the developing mouth, or stomodaeum. The infundibulum remains connected to the floor of the diencephalon, which becomes the hypothalamus, and gives rise to the part of the gland known as the neurohypophysis. (...) Rathke's pouch loses its connection with the stomodaeum in most adult vertebrates and gives rise to the rest of the gland, the adenohypophysis. (...) A well-developed hypophyseal system with functional connections to the hypothalamus is unique to craniates.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.510 and Figure 15-5'] ancestor: vestibulocochlear VIII nerve vestibular component [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.456-458 and Figure 13-18'] ancestor: vestibulocochlear VIII nerve cochlear component [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.456-458 and Figure 13-18'] ancestor: vestibulocochlear VIII ganglion cochlear component [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.456-458 and Figure 13-18'] ancestor: urinary bladder fundus region [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.577-78'] ancestor: ultimobranchial body ' (...) ultimobranchial bodies that develop in all vertebrates from the ventral or posterior surface of the last pair of pharyngeal pouches. The ultimobranchial bodies are vestigial in most mammals (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.523'] ancestor: cloaca 'A cloaca is apparently a primitive vertebrate feature because it occurs in most primitive gnathostomes and persists in the embryos of almost all vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.572'] ancestor: urogenital membrane [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006), The digestive tube and its derivatives, p.495-496'] ancestor: parathyroid gland 'The evolution of the tetrapods, and the shift from an aquatic to a terrestrial environment, was believed to have required new controls for regulating calcium homeostasis, and thus the evolution of parathyroid glands (...) both the tetrapod parathyroid and the gills of fish contribute to the regulation of extracellular calcium levels. It is therefore reasonable to suggest that the parathyroid gland evolved as a result of the transformation of the gills into the parathyroid glands of tetrapods and the transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial environment. This interpretation would also explain the positioning of the parathyroid gland within the pharynx in the tetrapod body. Were the parathyroid gland to have emerged de novo with the evolution of the tetrapods it could, as an endocrine organ, have been placed anywhere in the body and still exert its effect.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M, Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: foramen ovale Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: bone 'The 'new animal phylogeny' reveals that many of the groups known to biomineralize sit among close relatives that do not, and it favours an interpretation of convergent or parallel evolution for biomineralization in animals. (...) Whether this 'biomineralization toolkit'of genes reflects a parallel co-option of a common suite of genes or the inheritance of a skeletogenic gene regulatory network from a biomineralizing common ancestor remains an open debate.' [DOI:10.1159/000324245 'Murdock DJ, Donoghue PC, Evolutionary Origins of Animal Skeletal Biomineralization. Cells Tissues Organs (2011)'] ancestor: sartorius 'The ambiens of reptiles and the iliotibialis of amphibians are likely homologues of the sartorius.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.391'] ancestor: gastrocnemius 'The most prominent ventral muscle of the shank is the gastrocnemius, the 'calf' muscle. In mammals, it has two heads, resulting from the fusion of two different phylogenetic predecessors.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.393'] ancestor: posterior vena cava 'Phylogenetic modifications within this basic pattern of arteries and veins are largely correlated with functional changes. In the transition from water to land, gills gave way to lungs, accompanied by the establishment of a pulmonary circulation. In some fishes and certainly in tetrapods, the cardinal veins become less involved in blood return. Instead, the composite, prominent postcava (posterior vena cava) arose to drain the posterior part of the body and the precava (anterior vena cava) developed to drain the anterior part of the body.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.454-455'] ancestor: anterior vena cava 'Phylogenetic modifications within this basic pattern of arteries and veins are largely correlated with functional changes. In the transition from water to land, gills gave way to lungs, accompanied by the establishment of a pulmonary circulation. In some fishes and certainly in tetrapods, the cardinal veins become less involved in blood return. Instead, the composite, prominent postcava (posterior vena cava) arose to drain the posterior part of the body and the precava (anterior vena cava) developed to drain the anterior part of the body.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.454-455'] ancestor: arch of aorta 'The double systemic arch arches (left and right) present in amphibians and reptiles become reduced to a single systemic arch - the right in birds, the left in mammals.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.460 and p.461 Figure 12.20'] ancestor: cardinal vein 'In primitive vertebrates, the basic early embryonic pattern is retained, and blood from anterior and posterior systemic tissues is returned in anterior and posterior cardinal veins, both pairs of veins uniting in common cardinal veins near the heart. In derived vertebrates, the cardinals appear but usually persist only in the embryo, being functionally replaced by alternative adult vessels, the precava and postcava (anterior and posterior venae cavae).' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.462'] ancestor: cloacal membrane 'In mammals, the cloaca exists as an embryonic structure that undergoes septation to become distinct urethral, anal, and genital orifices.' [PMID:11830557 'De Santa Barbara P, Roberts DJ, Tail gut endoderm and gut/genitourinary/tail development: a new tissue-specific role for Hoxa13. Development (2002)'] ancestor: paramesonephric duct 'In females, the archinephric (mesonephric) ducts tend to function only within the urinary systems. The muellerian duct arises embryologically next to the archinephric (wolffian) duct. In males, the muellerian duct regresses if it appears at all, but in females, the muellerian ducts become the oviducts of the reproductive system.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.559'] ancestor: anterior neural plate ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: posterior neural plate ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: primitive streak - blastopore - germ ring ' (...) the blastopore equivalent of chordates (germ ring in fish, marginal zone/blastopore lip in frog and node/primitive streak in chick and mouse) (...) (reference 1); Indeed, the primitive streak has been considered the homologue of the blastopore since the 1870s (reference 2).' [PMID:9609826 'Wu LH, Lengyel JA, Role of caudal in hindgut specification and gastrulation suggests homology between Drosophila amnioproctodeal invagination and vertebrate blastopore. Development (1998)', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.139'] ancestor: pharyngeal pouch 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M, Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: pharyngeal arch 5 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M, Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: pharyngeal arch 6 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M, Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: pharyngeal pouch 5 'A conserved feature of all vertebrate embryos is the presence of a series of bulges on the lateral surface of the head, the pharyngeal arches; it is within these structures that the nerves, muscles and skeletal components of the pharyngeal apparatus are laid down. The pharyngeal arches are separated by endodermal outpocketings, the pharyngeal pouches.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00472.x 'Graham A, Okabe M, Quinlan R, The role of the endoderm in the development and evolution of the pharyngeal arches. J Anat (2005)'] ancestor: cartilage 'Phylogenetic analysis suggests that cartilage arose independently in cnidarians, hemichordates, vertebrates, arthropods, annelids, brachiopods, and molluscs - or a common ancestor of brachiopods and molluscs (...). Analyses of cartilage as a tissue and of the development of invertebrate cartilages are consistent with homology between invertebrate and vertebrate cartilage. From the discussion above, it will be clear that understanding genetic changes underlying cartilage evolution is key to determining whether the multiple origins of cartilage represent parallel evolution.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1525-142X.2011.00520.x 'Hall BK, Parallelism, deep homology, and evo-devo. Evolution and Development (2012)'] ancestor: vagal neural crest 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: facial neural crest 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: neural crest hindbrain 'We conclude this section by listing some of the many synapomorphies of craniates, including (1) the neural crest (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.43'] ancestor: neural fold hindbrain ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: notochordal plate [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0013689 'Oda-Ishii I, Ishii Y, Mikawa T, Eph regulates dorsoventral asymmetry of the notochord plate and convergent extension-mediated notochord formation. PLoS One (2010)'] ancestor: notochordal process [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0013689 'Oda-Ishii I, Ishii Y, Mikawa T, Eph regulates dorsoventral asymmetry of the notochord plate and convergent extension-mediated notochord formation. PLoS One (2010)'] ancestor: gill 'Gill slits in the pharyngeal region of the intestine, which are also present in (at least) tunicates and acranians, are taken over to the craniote ancestor.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.209'] ancestor: arterial system endothelium 'Vertebrates and a very few invertebrates such as squids have evolved a secondary epithelium, the endothelium, that lines their blood vessels.' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.207'] ancestor: venous system endothelium 'Vertebrates and a very few invertebrates such as squids have evolved a secondary epithelium, the endothelium, that lines their blood vessels.' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.207'] ancestor: cardiovascular system endothelium 'Vertebrates and a very few invertebrates such as squids have evolved a secondary epithelium, the endothelium, that lines their blood vessels.' [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.207'] ancestor: bone marrow 'The bone marrow is the hematopoietic organ in all vertebrates but fishes, in which hematopoiesis occurs in the kidney.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.22.010605.093317 'Hartenstein V, Blood Cells and Blood Cell Development in the Animal Kingdom. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology (2006)'] ancestor: osseus labyrinth [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.413-415 and Figure 12-15'] ancestor: osseus labyrinth vestibule [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.686-690 and Figure 17.34'] ancestor: blastomere [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.05.543 'Takeuchi M, Takahashi M, Okabe M, Aizawa S, Germ layer patterning in bichir and lamprey; an insight into its evolution in vertebrates. Developmental Biology (2009) Figure 1'] ancestor: primitive endoderm 'In mammal and avian, extraembryonic endoderm such as visceral endoderm and hypoblast play essential roles in the embryonic axis formation and germ layer development. These extraembryonic tissues are generally considered to have been created in ancestral amniotes evolved from the Xenopus-type ancestor (reference 1); The endomesoderm secretes as yet unidentified signals that posteriorize the ectoderm, which would otherwise adopt an anterior fate. Our results point to a conserved function at the base of deuterostomes for beta-catenin in germ layer specification and to a causal link in the definition of the posterior part of the embryonic ectoderm by way of activating posteriorizing endomesodermal factors (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.05.543 'Takeuchi M, Takahashi M, Okabe M, Aizawa S, Germ layer patterning in bichir and lamprey; an insight into its evolution in vertebrates. Developmental Biology (2009) (reference 1)', Darras S, Gerhart J, Terasaki M, Kirschner M, Lowe CJ, Beta-catenin specifies the endomesoderm and defines the posterior organizer of the hemichordate Saccoglossus kowalevskii. Development (2011) (reference 2)'] ancestor: primary germ layer 'The Bilateria are triploblastic (with true endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) (...).' [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.722'] ancestor: brain ventricular zone Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: left atrium myocardium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.604-605 and p.618-622'] ancestor: left atrium endocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: right atrium myocardium [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.604-605 and p.618-622'] ancestor: right atrium endocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: left auricle [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM, Christoffels VM, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiological Reviews (2003)'] ancestor: left auricle myocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: left auricle endocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: right auricle [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM, Christoffels VM, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiological Reviews (2003)'] ancestor: left ventricle endocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: left ventricle myocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: right ventricle endocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: right ventricle myocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: pronephric glomerulus 'The teleost pronephros shares many essential features with the amphibian pronephros including its derivation from mesoderm associated with the coelom and the derivation of the glomerular blood supply from the medial dorsal aorta. However, unlike the pronephros of amphibians, which have an external glomus and tubules with nephrostomes open to the coelom, the mature teleost pronephros has no connection to the body cavity and instead functions as a closed system (reference 1); This variation in nephron types [with external glomeruli that open into the coelom and with internal glomeruli that do not connect with the coelom] and their pattern of distribution suggest an evolutionary sequence. Ancestral craniates probably had an external glomerulus and nephrostomes, as do the first few to develop in very primitive craniates. (...) The mechanism would become more efficient as the coelomic recess into which each glomerulus discharged became a part of the tubule, that is, grew around the glomerulus as a renal capsule. The glomerulus becomes internal. The nephrostomes were lost during subsequent evolution, leaving the type of renal tubule found in most vertebrates (reference 2).' [PMID:9806915 'Drummond IA, Majumdar A, Hentschel H, Elger M, Solnica-Krezel L, Schier AF, Neuhauss SCF, Stemple DL, Zwartkruis F, Rangini Z, Driever W, Fishman MC, Early development of the zebrafish pronephros and analysis of mutations affecting pronephric function. Development (1998)', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.636'] ancestor: mesonephric glomerulus 'In animals in which the mesonephros is the terminal kidney, such as amphibians and fish, the final organ is very complex, containing a large number of nephrons, most of which have an internal glomerulus.' [ISBN:978-0127224411 'Vize PD, Woolf AS, Bard JBL, The kidney: From normal development to congenital disease (2003) p.3'] ancestor: pronephric mesoderm Pronephric mesoderm is a vertebrate feature. [ISBN:978-0127224411 'Vize PD, Woolf AS, Bard JBL, The kidney: From normal development to congenital disease (2003) p.23'] ancestor: nephric cord [ISBN:978-0127224411 'Vize PD, Woolf AS, Bard JBL, The kidney: From normal development to congenital disease (2003) p.52'] ancestor: induced blastemal cells ancestor: metanephric glomerulus [DOI:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00311.x 'Ditrich H, The origin of vertebrates: a hypothesis based on kidney development. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society (2007)'] ancestor: lateral line system 'The mechanosensory lateral line system is widely distributed in aquatic anamniotes. It was apparently present in the earliest vertebrates, as it has been identified in agnathans, cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, lungfishes, the crossopterygian Latimeria, and aquatic amphibians.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.195'] ancestor: myotome 'In all vertebrates, the skeletal muscle of the body axis is chiefly derived from an early embryonic compartment, known as the myotome.' [DOI:10.1038/sj.embor.embor920 'Hollway GE, Currie PD, Myotome meanderings. Cellular morphogenesis and the making of muscle. EMBO Rep.(2003)'] ancestor: muscle 'It seems clear that the metazoan ancestor inherited from its unicellular descendants an actin cytoskeleton and motor-proteins of the myosin superfamily. Within metazoans, these two molecules were arranged into effective contractile units, the muscles. The basic trends for muscle evolution are already expressed in the diploblastic taxa.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.75'] ancestor: smooth muscle ' (...) the first bilateral animals possessed only smooth muscles with the molecular repertoire necessary to build a striated muscle. (...) it is more parsimonious to regard striated muscle cells as a sister cell type to the smooth muscle cells. In this scenario, striated and smooth muscles would have arisen in the stem lineage that led to the Nephrozoa (i.e. all Bilateria exclusive the acoelomorphs) (Hejnol et al., 2009), from an acoel-like smooth muscle, by segregation and divergence of functions and through differential recruitment of additional genes' [DOI:10.1002/jez.b.21416 'Chiodin M, Achatz JG, Wanninger A, Martinez P, Molecular architecture of muscles in an acoel and its evolutionary implications. Journal of Experimental Zoology (2011)'] ancestor: immune system 'The antibody-based immune system defined by the presence of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), T cell receptor (TCR), B cell receptor (BCR) or recombination activating genes (RAGs) is known beginning from jawed fishes.' [PMID:21046016 'Dzik JM, The ancestry and cumulative evolution of immune reactions. Acta biochimica Polonica (2010)'] ancestor: circulatory system 'We should divest ourselves of the view that earlier vertebrate groups were 'on their way' to becoming mammals, as clearly they were not such visionaries. Neither were their systems 'imperfect' as earlier anatomists thought. Instead, their circulatory systems served them well to address the ecological demands arising from their lifestyles.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.493'] ancestor: lymph vessel 'Tetrapods have evolved distinct lymphatic systems, in which lymphatic capillaries help drain most of the tissues of the body.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.627'] ancestor: blood vessel 'The appearance of Chordata and subsequently the vertebrates is accompanied by a rapid structural diversification of this primitive linear heart: looping, unidirectional circulation, an enclosed vasculature, and the conduction system.' [DOI:10.1196/annals.1341.002 'Bishopric NH, Evolution of the heart from bacteria to man. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2006)'] ancestor: artery 'The appearance of Chordata and subsequently the vertebrates is accompanied by a rapid structural diversification of this primitive linear heart: looping, unidirectional circulation, an enclosed vasculature, and the conduction system.' [DOI:10.1196/annals.1341.002 'Bishopric NH, Evolution of the heart from bacteria to man. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2006)'] ancestor: capillary 'The appearance of Chordata and subsequently the vertebrates is accompanied by a rapid structural diversification of this primitive linear heart: looping, unidirectional circulation, an enclosed vasculature, and the conduction system.' [DOI:10.1196/annals.1341.002 'Bishopric NH, Evolution of the heart from bacteria to man. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2006)'] ancestor: skeletal system 'By taking a holistic approach, integration of the evidence from molecular and developmental features of model organisms, the phylogenetic distribution in the 'new animal phylogeny' and the earliest fossilized remains of mineralized animal skeletons suggests independent origins of the skeleton at the phylum level.' [DOI:10.1159/000324245 'Donoghue PCJ, Sansom IJ, Origin and early evolution of vertebrate skeletonization. Microscopy research and technique (2002)'] ancestor: hindlimb skeleton 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: forelimb skeleton 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: peritoneum Peritoneum is cited as a common feature to Bilateria. [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.205'] ancestor: limb - fin bud 'The tetrapod limb is derived from a posterior part of the fin endoskeleton of elasmobranchs and basal bony fish, the so-called metapterygium, a series of endoskeletal elements that is the first to form in the developing paired fins. (...) In addition, there is an independent endoskeletal element called the protopterygium that develops anterior to the metapterygium in many basal fishes (e.g., the bichir and sturgeon). Teleosts have lost the metapterygium whereas the sarcopterygians, on the other hand, have lost the protopterygium. Sarcopterygians thus develop all their endoskeletal structures from the metapterygium and consequently the tetrapod limb skeleton is derived from the metapterygium.' [DOI:10.1002/jez.1100 'Wagner GP, Chiu C, The tetrapod limb: A hypothesis on its origin. J Exp Zool (Mol Dev Evol) (2001)'] ancestor: hindlimb bud 'Most anatomists now agree that the three proximal bones of the tetrapod limbs are homologous to the two or three proximal elements of the paired fin skeleton of other sarcopterygians, that is the humerus-femur, radius-tibia, and ulna-fibula.' [ISBN:978-0198540472 'Janvier P, Early vertebrates (1996) p.268'] ancestor: prostate gland [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.670-671 and Figure 21-13, A'] ancestor: metanephric corpuscle [ISBN:978-0127224411 'Vize PD, Woolf AS and Bard JBL, The kidney: From normal development to congenital disease (2003) p.156'] ancestor: mammary gland milk 'The detailed similarities of mammary glands in living monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians argue for a monophyletic origin of these glands, perhaps by the combination of parts of preexisting sebaceous and sweat glands.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.224'] ancestor: urethra [DOI:10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.03.017 'Seifert AW, Harfe BD, Cohn MJ, Cell lineage analysis demonstrates an endodermal origin of the distal urethra and perineum. Developmental Biology (2008)'] ancestor: epididymis [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.670-671 and Figure 21-13, A'] ancestor: placenta 'Phylogenetic analyses of the concatenated data set using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and distance based (neighbour joining) methods all converged on a nearly identical, well supported topology defining four principal eutherian lineages. The results affirm monophyly of traditional placental orders (except Artiodactyla and Insectivora), and also support some previously proposed, as well as new, superordinal clades.' [DOI:10.1038/35054550 'Murphy WJ, Eizirik E, Johnson WE, Zhang YP, Ryder OA, O'Brien SJ, Molecular phylogenetics and the origins of placental mammals. Nature (2001)'] ancestor: amniotic fluid [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.352-353'] ancestor: hair follicle 'The earliest reliable record of hair is found in a fossil of the Paleocene period, in which the structure of hair cuticles is preserved. Its appearance suggests that the complicated structure of the hair follicle, closely similar to that of present-day mammals, had already appeared at this time.' [ISBN:978-4431998051 'Morioka K, Hair follicle: differentiation under the electron microscope, An atlas (2005) p.3'] ancestor: gum [DOI:10.1007/s00223-002-1076-8 'Sawada T, Inoue S, Mineralization of basement membrane mediates dentogingival adhesion in mammalian and nonmammalian vertebrates. Calcified Tissue International (2003)'] ancestor: loop of Henle [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.648 and Figure 20-13, B'] ancestor: cardiac conducting system 'The fish heart displays clear polarity of contraction in a posterior-to-anterior direction. The contraction waves originate in the sinus venosus and terminate in the conus arteriosus. The nodal phenotype persists in the inflow region of the heart, varying from the venosinus to the sinoatrial junctional areas in different species . Similar to the mammalian situation, pacemaker tissue with a lower intrinsic rhythmicity is also found at the atrioventricular junction.' [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM, Christoffels VM, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiological Reviews (2003)'] ancestor: ligament 'Compared with their Ediacarian predecessor, Cambrian animals in general were characterized by their much stouter bodies. The stoutness of the body is likely due to the formation of ligaments and tendons, which in turn requires the crosslinking of collagen triple helices.' [PMID:8710894 'Ohno S, The notion of the Cambrian pananimalia genome. PNAS (1996)'] ancestor: lymph node 'Lymph nodes that are associated with the lymphatic system have evolved in mammals.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.630'] ancestor: sclera [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.426-427 and Figure 12-28'] ancestor: musculoskeletal system 'There are more than 50,000 extant vertebrate species, representing over 500 million years of evolution. During that time, the vertebrate musculoskeletal systems have adapted to aquatic, terrestrial, fossorial, and arboreal lifestyles, while simultaneously retaining functionally integrated axial and appendicular skeletal systems.' [DOI:10.1002/jez.b.21246 'Shearman RM, Burke AC, The lateral somitic frontier in ontogeny and phylogeny. Journal of Experimental Zoology (2009)'] ancestor: joint [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.193-195'] ancestor: amygdala 'One part of the striatum is called the archistriatum. (...) The archistriatum of fishes consists of several indistinctly segregated nuclei called the amygdaloid (...) complex. Tetrapods retain the structure, and in mammals the corresponding amygdala is a globular mass that tends to be ventral to the other basal nuclei.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.342'] ancestor: cerebrospinal fluid 'In vertebrates, at early stages of Central Nervous System (CNS) development, the architecture of the brain primordium reveals the presence of the cavity of brain vesicles, which is filled by Embryonic Cerebro-Spinal Fluid (E-CSF). (...) Rat and chick E-CSF proteomes are similar, although rat is more complex in certain groups of proteins, e.g., apolipoproteins, which may be involved in the control of neural diversity, and has soluble enzymes present, just like adult human CSF, but unlike chick E-CSF, revealing phylogenetic brain differences between these groups of vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1021/pr050213t 'Parada C, Gato A, Bueno D, Mammalian embryonic cerebrospinal fluid proteome has greater apolipoprotein and enzyme pattern complexity than the avian proteome. Journal of Proteome Research (2005)'] ancestor: larynx ' (In anura) a dorsal pair of arytenoid cartilages (...), which support vocal cords, and a ventral pair (often fused) of cricoid cartilage (...). These cartilages are regarded as derivatives of posterior visceral arches of ancestors. Together they constitute the larynx, a structure characteristic of tetrapods. (...) (In mammals) Paired arytenoid cartilages help support and control the vocal cords. The cricoid cartilage is single. Two additional cartilages are present that are lacking in other vertebrates: a large ventral thyroid cartilage (...) and a cartilage in the epiglottis.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.239-241'] ancestor: pericardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.468 and Figure 12.24'] ancestor: myometrium 'In all mammals, the uterus develops as a specialization of the paramesonephric or Mllerian ducts, which gives rise to the infundibula, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and anterior vagina. Morphogenetic events common to development of all uteri include: 1) differentiation and growth of the myometrium, 2) differentiation and morphogenesis of the endometrial glands, and 3) organization and stratification of endometrial stroma. Uterine development is initiated in the fetus, but is only completed postnatally with differentiation and development of the endometrial glands.' [PMID:15471813 'Spencer TE, Bazer FW, Uterine and placental factors regulating conceptus growth in domestic animals. Journal of Animal Science (2004)'] ancestor: synovium 'Phylogenetically, synovium is one of the newer attributes of the vertebrate locomotor apparatus. The first synovial joints developed in the piscine jaw of ancestors of modern lungfish by an evolutionary process that modified preexisting fibrous and cartilaginous joints, which were the predominant articulation of the early sea- and land-dwelling vertebrates.' [PMID:11068553 'O'Connel JX, Pathology of the synovium. American Journal of Clinical Pathology (2000)'] ancestor: myocoele 'The central cavity within the mesoderm is the paired primary or embryonic coelom. Parts of the embryonic coelom often become enclosed in the mesoderm, forming a myocoel within the epimere, a nephrocoel within the mesomere, and simple coelom (body cavity) within the lateral plate mesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.166 and Figure 5.6'] ancestor: adipose tissue 'Adipose tissue is unique to vertebrates. It is found in mostmammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, and a variety is found in some species of fish. Furthermore, in insects the fat body found in larvae as well as in adults shares some homology with adipose tissue.' [DOI:10.1017/S0029665107005423 'Haugen F, Drevon CA, The interplay between nutrients and the adipose tissue. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society (2007)'] ancestor: endometrium 'The maternal part of the placenta (of eutherian mammals) is the vascularized and glandular uterine lining, or endometrium.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.144'] ancestor: tendon 'Phylogenetically, tendinous tissue first appears in the invertebrate chordate Branchiostoma as myosepta. This two-dimensional array of collagen fibers is highly organized, with fibers running along two primary axes. In hagfish the first linear tendons appear and the myosepta have developed specialized regions with unidirectional fiber orientation - a linear tendon within the flat sheet of myoseptum.' [DOI:10.1016/S1095-6433(02)00241-6 'Summers AP, Koob TJ, The evolution of tendon - morphology and material properties. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology-Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology (2002)'] ancestor: spinal cord dorsal horn [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639-643 and Figure 16.27'] ancestor: spinal cord ventral horn [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639-643 and Figure 16.27'] ancestor: meninx 'In fishes, the meninges consist of a single membrane, the primitive meninx, wrapped around the brain and spinal cord. With the adoption of terrestrial life, the meninges doubled. In amphibians, reptiles, and birds, the meninges include a thick outer dura mater derived from mesoderm and a thin inner secondary meninx. (...) In mammals, the dura mater persists, but division of the secondary meninx yields both the arachnoid and the pia mater from ectomesoderm.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639'] ancestor: optic eminence ancestor: tubotympanic recess 'The tympanic cavity and auditory tube of an amniote develop from the first embryonic pharyngeal pouch, so they are homologous to the first gill pouch, or spiracle, of a fish. We are uncertain whether this homology strictly applies to the middle ear cavity and auditory tube of lissamphibians, which show certain peculiarities in their development.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.417'] ancestor: tentorium cerebelli Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: subarachnoid space diencephalon Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: subarachnoid space hindbrain Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: subarachnoid space midbrain Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: metacarpus cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: appendix 'A comparative anatomical approach reveals three apparent morphotypes of the cecal appendix, as well as appendix-like structures in some species that lack a true cecal appendix. Cladistic analyses indicate that the appendix has evolved independently at least twice (at least once in diprotodont marsupials and at least once in Euarchontoglires), shows a highly significant (P < 0.0001) phylogenetic signal in its distribution, and has been maintained in mammalian evolution for 80 million years or longer.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01809.x 'Smith HF, Fisher RE, Everett ML, Thomas AD, Randal Bollinger R, Parker W, Comparative anatomy and phylogenetic distribution of the mammalian cecal appendix. Journal of Evolutionary Biology (2009)'] ancestor: cricoid cartilage ' (In anura) a dorsal pair of arytenoid cartilages (...), which support vocal cords, and a ventral pair (often fused) of cricoid cartilage (...). These cartilages are regarded as derivatives of posterior visceral arches of ancestors. Together they constitute the larynx, a structure characteristic of tetrapods. (...) (In mammals) Paired arytenoid cartilages help support and control the vocal cords. The cricoid cartilage is single. Two additional cartilages are present that are lacking in other vertebrates: a large ventral thyroid cartilage (...) and a cartilage in the epiglottis.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.239-241'] ancestor: gluteus muscle [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: ethmoid bone 'The ethmoid region of the chondrocranium and the nasal capsules, which were largely unossified in early tetrapods and ancestral amniotes, are represented in mammals by the ethmoid and turbinates bones, respectively.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.259'] ancestor: radius cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: testis cords [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00009.2006 'Wilhelm D, Palmer S, Koopman P, Sex determination and gonadal development in mammals. Physiological Reviews (2007)'] ancestor: hindbrain venous system Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: frontal process Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: frontal bone [DOI:10.1038/nrn1221 'Santagati F, Rijli FM, Cranial neural crest and the building of the vertebrate head. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2003)'] ancestor: hyoid bone [DOI:10.1038/nrn1221 'Santagati F, Rijli FM, Cranial neural crest and the building of the vertebrate head. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2003)'] ancestor: parietal bone 'The homologization of cranial bones of actinopterygians with those of sarcopterygians based on the bone names established in human anatomy is favored in order to permit the building of phylogenetic relationship schemes beyond the taxonomic boundaries of osteichthyans (including tetrapods). (...) In actinopterygians, the terms parietal and postparietal bones have to replace the commonly used terms 'frontal' and 'parietal' bones for the two paired bones on the skull roof.' [ISBN:978-3899370805 'Arratia G, Schultze HP, Wilson MVH, Mesozoic Fishes 4 - Homology and Phylogeny (2008) p.23-48'] ancestor: interparietal bone 'The homologization of cranial bones of actinopterygians with those of sarcopterygians based on the bone names established in human anatomy is favored in order to permit the building of phylogenetic relationship schemes beyond the taxonomic boundaries of osteichthyans (including tetrapods). (...) In actinopterygians, the terms parietal and postparietal bones have to replace the commonly used terms 'frontal' and 'parietal' bones for the two paired bones on the skull roof.' [ISBN:978-3899370805 'Arratia G, Schultze HP, Wilson MVH, Mesozoic Fishes 4 - Homology and Phylogeny (2008) p.23-48'] ancestor: brain venous system Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: basisphenoid cartilage condensation Cartilage condensation is a process involving chondrocytes and currently the evolutionary origin of the chondrocyte is unknown. [PMID:21305475 'Cole AG, A review of diversity in the evolution and development of cartilage: the search for the origin of the chondrocyte. European Cells and Materials (2011)'] ancestor: ovigerous cords [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00009.2006 'Wilhelm D, Palmer S, Koopman P, Sex determination and gonadal development in mammals. Physiological Reviews (2007)'] ancestor: penis foreskin [DOI:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0161 'Kelly DA, Turtle and mammal penis designs are anatomically convergent. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (2004)'] ancestor: facial VII nerve chorda tympani branch ancestor: crus commune [DOI:10.1098/rspb.2010.1148 'Luo ZX, Ruf I, Schultz JA, Martin T, Fossil evidence on evolution of inner ear cochlea in Jurassic mammals. Proceedings Biological sciences The Royal Society (2011) Figure 1'] ancestor: trigeminal V nerve mandibular division The trigeminal nerve has three great branches in mammals: the ophthalmic branch, the maxillary branch and the mandibular branch. [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB, Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.185'] ancestor: trigeminal V nerve maxillary division The trigeminal nerve has three great branches in mammals: the ophthalmic branch, the maxillary branch and the mandibular branch. [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB, Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.185'] ancestor: vagus X nerve recurrent laryngeal branch ancestor: Sertoli cell 'There is, however, variation amongst the vertebrates in how germ cell development and maturation is accomplished. This difference can be broadly divided into two distinct patterns, one present in anamniotes (fish, amphibia) and the other in amniotes (reptiles, birds, mammals). For anamniotes, spermatogenesis occurs in spermatocysts (cysts) which for most species develop within seminiferous lobules. Cysts are produced when a Sertoli cell becomes associated with a primary spermatogonium. Mitotic divisions of the primary spermatogonium produce a cohort of secondary spermatogonia that are enclosed by the Sertoli cell which forms the wall of the cyst. With spermatogenic progression a clone of isogeneic spermatozoa is produced which are released, by rupture of the cyst, into the lumen of the seminiferous lobule. Following spermiation, the Sertoli cell degenerates. For anamniotes, therefore, there is no permanent germinal epithelium since spermatocysts have to be replaced during successive breeding seasons. By contrast, spermatogenesis in amniotes does not occur in cysts but in seminiferous tubules that possess a permanent population of Sertoli cells and spermatogonia which act as a germ cell reservoir for succeeding bouts of spermatogenic activity. There is, in general, a greater variation in the organization of the testis and pattern of spermatogenesis in the anamniotes compared to amniotes.' [DOI:10.1002/jemt.1070320602 'Pudney J, Spermatogenesis in nonmammalian vertebrates. Microscopy Research and Technique (2010)'] ancestor: trigeminal V nerve ophthalmic division 'The profundus nerve is a distinct nerve only in fishes. (...) In mammals, the profundus nerve is the same as the most rostral (ophthalmic) branch of the trigeminal nerve.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.177'] ancestor: biliary bud [DOI:10.1242/jcs.03330 'Dutton JR, Chillingworth NL, Eberhard D, Brannon CR, Hornsey MA, Tosh D, Slack JM, Beta cells occur naturally in extrahepatic bile ducts of mice. Journal of Cell Science (2007)'] ancestor: oronasal cavity [DOI:10.1098/rstb.2001.0976 'Kuratani S, Nobusada Y, Horigome N, Shigetani Y, Embryology of the lamprey and evolution of the vertebrate jaw: insights from molecular and developmental perspectives. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological sciences (2001) Figure 10'] ancestor: uterine cervix 'The evolution of mammals is associated with radical changes in their reproductive biology, particularly the structure and function of the female reproductive organs. These changes include the evolution of the uterus, cervix, vagina, placenta and specialized cell types associated with each of those structures.' [DOI:10.1098/rspb.2004.2848 'Lynch VJ, Roth JJ, Takahashi K, Dunn CW, Nonaka DF, Stopper GF, Wagner GP, Adaptive evolution of HoxA-11 and HoxA-13 at the origin of the uterus in mammals. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B (2004)'] ancestor: pineal gland stalk 'The epithalamus contains the epiphysis (pineal gland and related structures), which is located at the end of a stalk, the epiphyseal stalk.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB, Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.66'] ancestor: claw 'Only primates have nails. In other vertebrates, the keratinizing system at the terminus of each digit produces claws or hooves.' Controversies persist about homologies of integumentary structures. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p. 225 and p.230-232'] ancestor: nail bed 'Only primates have nails. In other vertebrates, the keratinizing system at the terminus of each digit produces claws or hooves.' Controversies persist about homologies of integumentary structures. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p. 225 and p.230-232'] ancestor: seminiferous tubule 'Frogs among amphibians and the amniotes have males with testes that are composed of seminiferous tubules, which differ from ampullae in being long, highly convoluted ductules.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.688 and Figure 21-28'] ancestor: auditory hillocks 'Mammals have a third type of tympanic ear. An external flap, the auricle or pinna, helps funnel sound waves down the external acoustic meatus to the tympanic membrane.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.420'] ancestor: thyroid cartilage '[In anura] a dorsal pair of arytenoid cartilages (...), which support vocal cords, and a ventral pair (often fused) of cricoid cartilage (...). These cartilages are regarded as derivatives of posterior visceral arches of ancestors. Together they constitute the larynx, a structure characteristic of tetrapods. (...) [In mammals] Paired arytenoid cartilages help support and control the vocal cords. The cricoid cartilage is single. Two additional cartilages are present that are lacking in other vertebrates: a large ventral thyroid cartilage (...) and a cartilage in the epiglottis.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.239-241'] ancestor: tegmentum 'Together, our results reveal a shared basic organization in the tegmental domains of the diencephalon and midbrain of developing lamprey, indicating early appearance of the domain in vertebrate phylogeny.' [DOI:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2005.05.001 'Villar-Cheda B, Abalo XM, Anadon R, Rodicio MC, The tegmental proliferation region in the sea lamprey. Brain Research Bulletin (2005)'] ancestor: nasal bone [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.244-245'] ancestor: nose process Nose is one of the characteristics of craniates (reference 1); Frontal nasal process of mammals is illustrated in reference 2. [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.41 and Figure 2-11 p.42', ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) p.421 and Figure 13.13'] ancestor: non neural ectoderm 'In the early gastrula of vertebrates, factors from the organizer (e.g. noggin, chordin, and follistatin in Xenopus) antagonize the epidermalizing factor bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4), thus dividing the epiblast into neuroectoderm. In Drosophila, decapentaplegic, the homologue of BMP4, interacts similarly with the protein 'short gastrulation', the homologue of chordin. Thus, a comparable molecular mechanism for distinguishing non-neural ectoderm from neural ectoderm was probably present in the common ancestor of all bilaterally symmetrical animals.' [DOI:10.1016/S0959-4388(99)00003-3 'Holland LZ and Holland ND, Chordate origins of the vertebrate central nervous system. Current Opinion in Neurobiology (1999)'] ancestor: choroid plexus Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: adrenal medulla 'All craniates have groups of cells homologous to the mammalian adrenocortical and chromaffin tissues (medulla), but they are scattered in and near the kidneys in fishes. (...) The cortical and chromaffin tissues come together to form adrenal glands in tetrapods.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.518 and Figure 15-9'] ancestor: seminal vesicle ' (In mammalian testis) Along the way (the sperm travel), three accessory sex glands, the seminal vesicle, prostate, and bulbourethral (Cowper's) gland, respectively, add their secretions as sperm move from the testes to the urethra.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.556'] ancestor: chordoneural hinge 'Although there is mounting evidence showing the comparability of events and formation of different nascent tissue types during gastrulation and tail development, recent work also suggests the presence of an ongoing stem cell population capable of contributing to multiple tissue types in the tail of several different vertebrates, situated in the chordoneural hinge region of the tail bud. It would seem likely that secondary signaling centers regulate the fate to be adopted by such pluripotent progenitors.' [DOI:10.1002/dvdy.20017 'Liu C, Knezevic V, Mackem S, Ventral tail bud mesenchyme is a signaling for tail paraxial mesoderm induction. Developmental Dynamics (2004)'] ancestor: posterior neural tube ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: anterior neural tube ' (...) at some stage of its development, every chordate exhibits five uniquely derived characters or synapomorphies of the group: (...) (4) a single, tubular nerve cord that is located dorsal to the notochord (...).' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.28'] ancestor: bulbar ridge The left and right bulbar ridges, together with the endocardial cushion, are structures involved in the formation of the chambers and valves of the heart. [ISBN:978-0878932504 'Gilbert SF, Developmental Biology (2006) Limb development and evolution, p.478-482 and Figure 15.8'] ancestor: tectum 'The tectum - a multisensory, topologically mapped structure in the roof of the midbrain presents a remarkable degree of conservation in all vertebrate radiations; although it varies in the extent of its development in different vertebrate classes, there is considerable evidence now to deem its layered structure, its cell types, and its hodological pattern as homologous in all vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0003582 'Maximino C, Evolutionary Changes in the Complexity of the Tectum of Nontetrapods: A Cladistic Approach. PLoS ONE (2008)'] ancestor: tongue skeletal muscle 'The lamprey head contains another group of muscles, the epi- and hypo-branchial muscles (EBM and HBM), derivatives of anterior trunk myotomes. (...) The origin and the migration pattern of HBM precursors are very similar to that of the gnathostome MPP, especially to that of the tongue muscle precursors. Other evidence of homology of lamprey HBM to the gnathostome tongue muscle is that HBM is innervated by the nerve termed the hypoglossal nerve based on its morphological position associated with the head/trunk interface. (...) The HBM-specific expression of the LampPax3/7 gene is consistent with the homology of this muscle to the gnathostome tongue muscle, or to the hypobranchial series as a whole (including the infrahyoid and possibly the diaphragm in mammals).' [DOI:10.1002/dvdy.20587 'Kusakabe R, Kuratani S, Evolution and developmental patterning of the vertebrate skeletal muscles: perspectives from the lamprey. Developmental Dynamics (2005)'] ancestor: rhomboid muscle [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.394 Table 10.2'] ancestor: papillary muscle 'On the internal or parietal surface of the left ventricle in man and in mammals are two papillary muscles, which are almost identical and well developed.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1368-5031.2005.00345. x] ancestor: semilunar valve 'Extensive conservation of valve developmental mechanisms also has been observed among vertebrate species including chicken, mouse, and human.' [DOI:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.109.201566 'Combs MD, Yutzey KE, Heart valve development. Circulatory Research (2009)'] ancestor: outflow tract aortic component [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: outflow tract pulmonary component [DOI:10.1126/science.1190181 'Stolfi A, Gainous TB, Young JJ, Mori A, Levine M, Christiaen L, Early chordate origins of the vertebrate second heart field. Science (2010)'] ancestor: extraembryonic vascular system 'Extraembryonic vasculogenesis precedes intraembryonic vascular development, and in mammals is first apparent as blood islands assembling within the mesodermal layer of the yolk sac.' [DOI:10.1161/01.ATV.0000183609.55154.44 'Ferguson JE 3rd, Kelley RW, Patterson C, Mechanisms of endothelial differentiation in embryonic vasculogenesis. Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology (2005)'] ancestor: scapula [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.330-333 and Figure 9.18'] ancestor: central tendon 'In mammals, the diaphragm muscle divides the thoracoabdominal cavity into thorax and abdomen. In most mammals, the diaphragm is a flat sheet with muscle fibers radiating outward from a central tendon, and the diaphragm's apposition to the cranial surface of the liver gives it a dome-shape. Muscle fiber contraction reduces the curvature of the dome, thereby expanding the thoracic cavity and aspirating air into the lungs.' [DOI:10.1016/j.resp.2006.06.003] ancestor: laryngo-tracheal groove 'Lung development begins with the appearance of the laryngotracheal groove, which is a small diverticulum that arises from the floor of the primitive pharynx at E9 in mouse and 4 wk in human.' [PMID:15817505 'Warburton D, Bellusci S, De Langhe S, Del Moral PM, Fleury V, Mailleux A, Tefft D, Unbekandt M, Wang K, Shi W, Molecular mechanisms of early lung specification and branching morphogenesis. Pediatric Research (2005)'] ancestor: bulboventricular groove [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM, Christoffels VN, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiological Reviews (2003)'] ancestor: sensory organ [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.118-123 and Table 7.1'] ancestor: optic foramen Optic foramen is a synapomorphic character in Eutheria. [PMID:3127652 'Shoshani J, Mammalian phylogeny: comparison of morphological and molecular results. Molecular Biology and Evolution (1986)'] ancestor: ventricular layer lateral wall rhombomere Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer lateral wall rhombomere Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: marginal layer lateral wall spinal cord Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: mantle layer lateral wall rhombomere Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: Leydig cell [DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.042308.13350 'DeFalco T, Capel B, Gonad morphogenesis in vertebrates: divergent means to a convergent end. Annual review of cell and developmental biology (2009)'] ancestor: caudate nucleus 'All nuclei of the mammalian basal ganglia are also present in the oldest vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1016/j.cub.2011.05.001 'Stephenson-Jones M, Samuelsson E, Ericsson J, Robertson B, Grillner S, Evolutionary conservation of the basal ganglia as a common vertebrate mechanism for action selection. Current Biology (2011)'] ancestor: liver left lobe [DOI:10.1002/ar.20524 'Hardman RC, Volz DC, Kullman SW, Hinton DE, An in vivo look at vertebrate liver architecture: three-dimensional reconstruction from Medaka (Oryzias latipes). The Anatomical Record (2007)'] ancestor: liver right lobe [DOI:10.1002/ar.20524 'Hardman RC, Volz DC, Kullman SW, Hinton DE, An in vivo look at vertebrate liver architecture: three-dimensional reconstruction from Medaka (Oryzias latipes). The Anatomical Record (2007)'] ancestor: 1st pharyngeal membrane 'In all vertebrates, the endodermal epithelium lining each pouch contacts the surface ectoderm of the clefts to form a series of bilayered branchial membranes, that break down in fish to form the gill openings.' [ISBN:978-0124020603 'Kaufman MH, Bard JBL, The anatomical basis of mouse development (1999) p.72'] ancestor: dorsal pancreatic bud 'In chick, Xenopus laevis, and the teleost fish Medaka, the pancreas develops from three buds that emerge from the gut tube, two from its ventral aspect, and one from its dorsal aspect. In mouse, although there are initially three buds that arise from the gut tube at the point of contact between the endoderm and the vasculature, the pancreas develops from only two of these buds, one dorsal and one ventral. (...) In this study, we use a transgenic zebrafish line (...). We provide evidence for the existence of two distinct pancreatic anlagen - a ventral anterior bud and a dorsal posterior bud - that join to form the definitive pancreas (reference 1); The pancreas develops from the fusion of distinct endoderm-derived dorsal and ventral diverticula. In humans, by day 35 of development, the ventral pancreatic bud begins to migrate backwards and comes into contact and eventually fuses with the dorsal pancreatic bud during the sixth week of development (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1016/S0012-1606(03)00308-7 'Field HA, Dong PD, Beis D, Stainier DY, Formation of the digestive system in zebrafish. II. Pancreas morphogenesis. Developmental Biology (2003), DOI:10.2337/diabetes.49.2.225 'Polak M, Bouchareb-Banaei L, Scharfmann R, Czernichow P, Early pattern of differentiation in the human pancreas. Diabetes (2000)'] ancestor: ventral pancreatic bud 'In chick, Xenopus laevis, and the teleost fish Medaka, the pancreas develops from three buds that emerge from the gut tube, two from its ventral aspect, and one from its dorsal aspect. In mouse, although there are initially three buds that arise from the gut tube at the point of contact between the endoderm and the vasculature, the pancreas develops from only two of these buds, one dorsal and one ventral. (...) In this study, we use a transgenic zebrafish line (...). We provide evidence for the existence of two distinct pancreatic anlagen - a ventral anterior bud and a dorsal posterior bud - that join to form the definitive pancreas (reference 1); The pancreas develops from the fusion of distinct endoderm-derived dorsal and ventral diverticula. In humans, by day 35 of development, the ventral pancreatic bud begins to migrate backwards and comes into contact and eventually fuses with the dorsal pancreatic bud during the sixth week of development (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1016/S0012-1606(03)00308-7 'Field HA, Dong PD, Beis D, Stainier DY, Formation of the digestive system in zebrafish. II. Pancreas morphogenesis. Developmental Biology (2003), DOI:10.2337/diabetes.49.2.225 'Polak M, Bouchareb-Banaei L, Scharfmann R, Czernichow P, Early pattern of differentiation in the human pancreas. Diabetes (2000)'] ancestor: eye anterior chamber [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.424-428 and Figure 12-25'] ancestor: stomach epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: parotid gland epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: bulbus cordis rostral half endocardium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.450-451'] ancestor: tooth epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: lung alveolus [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.433 and Figure 11.33'] ancestor: segmental bronchus [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.592 and Figure 18-15, C'] ancestor: pelvic part urogenital sinus [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.680-682 and Figure 21-23, B'] ancestor: phallic part urogenital sinus [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.680-682 and Figure 21-23, B'] ancestor: vesical part urogenital sinus [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.680-682 and Figure 21-23, B'] ancestor: putamen 'All nuclei of the mammalian basal ganglia are also present in the oldest vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1016/j.cub.2011.05.001 'Stephenson-Jones M, Samuelsson E, Ericsson J, Robertson B, Grillner S, Evolutionary conservation of the basal ganglia as a common vertebrate mechanism for action selection. Current Biology (2011)'] ancestor: brainstem Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: vulva ancestor: lens equatorial epithelium [DOI:10.1016/j.biocel.2007.10.034 'Fig.2'] ancestor: dental papilla 'Teeth and tooth-like structures, together named odontodes, are repeated organs thought to share a common evolutionary origin. These structures can be found in gnathostomes at different locations along the body: oral teeth in the jaws, teeth and denticles in the oral-pharyngeal cavity, and dermal denticles on elasmobranch skin.' [DOI:10.1186/1471-2148-11-307 'The homology of odontodes in gnathostomes: insights from Dlx gene expression in the dogfish, Scyliorhinus canicula. BMC Evolutionary Biology (2011)'] ancestor: pyloric sphincter '(...) the adult Xenopus stomach exhibits both glandular and aglandular regions and a distinct pyloric sphincter similar to that of the amniotic vertebrates (...).' [DOI:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2000.00076.x] ancestor: sweat gland 'Sweat glands (also called sudoriferous glands) are unique to mammals.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.101'] ancestor: sebaceous gland 'Sebaceous glands are also limited to mammals.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.102'] ancestor: dental pulp 'The oral cavity of vertebrates is generally thought to arise as an ectodermal invagination. Consistent with this, oral teeth are proposed to arise exclusively from ectoderm, contributing to tooth enamel epithelium, and from neural crest derived mesenchyme, contributing to dentin and pulp (reference 1); Teeth and tooth-like structures, together named odontodes, are repeated organs thought to share a common evolutionary origin. These structures can be found in gnathostomes at different locations along the body: oral teeth in the jaws, teeth and denticles in the oral-pharyngeal cavity, and dermal denticles on elasmobranch skin (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1038/nature07304 'Soukup V, Epperlein HH, Horacek I, Cerny R, Dual epithelial origin of vertebrate oral teeth. Nature (2008)', DOI:10.1186/1471-2148-11-307 'The homology of odontodes in gnathostomes: insights from Dlx gene expression in the dogfish, Scyliorhinus canicula. BMC Evolutionary Biology (2011)'] ancestor: foramen primum 'The tetrapod clade develops a complete atrial septum and loses the fifth aortic arch altogether.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620']; [about heart development] 'In the various tetrapod classes ontogenetic events essentially recapitulate the phylogenetic stages.' [ISBN:978-0721676678 'p.433'] ancestor: foramen secundum 'The tetrapod clade develops a complete atrial septum and loses the fifth aortic arch altogether.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620']; [about heart development] 'In the various tetrapod classes ontogenetic events essentially recapitulate the phylogenetic stages.' [ISBN:978-0721676678 'p.433'] ancestor: atrioventricular valve 'The conus arteriosus is the most distal part of the primitive fish heart and forms the connection between the ventricle and the ventral aorta. At the sinoatrial, the atrioventricular, and the ventriculoconal junctions, valves developed to prevent backflow of blood during relaxation of the preceding compartment.' [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003] ancestor: atrioventricular canal 'The heart is the first organ to form and function in a vertebrate. (...) Septation of the AV canal is initiated with the formation of inferior and superior endocardial cushions in response to signaling from the overlying myocardium. (...) Analysis of zebrafish mutants with cardiovascular defects uncovered a previously unexpected level of conservation between zebrafish and human cardiovascular physiology.' [DOI:10.1016/j.ddmec.2004.08.004 'Haramis APG, Clevers HC, Holehearted: genetic approaches to congenital cardiac valve malformations. Drug Discovery Today: Disease Mechanisms (2004)'] ancestor: atrioventricular node 'Three major adaptations, or 'novel cardiac components', that were not present in the ancestor chordate heart tube can be distinguished in the lower vertebrate heart: the atrium, ventricle, and possibly the muscular sinus venosus. Furthermore, within the ventricular component a compact outer myocardial component and an interiorly localized extensive trabecular component can be distinguished. The specific activation of the ventricle adds to its complexity as follows. The depolarizing impulse travels rapidly from the atrioventricular node toward the apex and then toward the conal region, achieving activation from apex to base.' [DOI:10.1152/physrev.00006.2003 'Moorman AFM, Christoffels VM, Cardiac Chamber Formation: Development, Genes, and Evolution. Physiological Reviews (2003)'] ancestor: glans penis [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.680-682 and Figure 21-23, D'] ancestor: lacrimal gland [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) The eye of terrestrial vertebrates, p.431-432 and Figure 12-30'] ancestor: hyaloid cavity The hyaloid cavity or hyaloid fossa is a reminiscence of the hyaloid vasculature, the transient embryonic vascular bed which is complete at birth in mammals and regresses contemporaneously with the formation of the retinal vasculature. [DOI:10.1387/ijdb.041895ms 'Saint-Geniez M, D'Amore PA, Development and pathology of the hyaloid, choroidal and retinal vasculature. International Journal of Developmental Biology (2004)'] ancestor: T cell 'The antibody-based immune system defined by the presence of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), T cell receptor (TCR), B cell receptor (BCR) or recombination activating genes (RAGs) is known beginning from jawed fishes.' [PMID:21046016 'Dzik JM, The ancestry and cumulative evolution of immune reactions. Acta biochimica Polonica (2010)'] ancestor: B cell 'The antibody-based immune system defined by the presence of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), T cell receptor (TCR), B cell receptor (BCR) or recombination activating genes (RAGs) is known beginning from jawed fishes.' [PMID:21046016 'Dzik JM, The ancestry and cumulative evolution of immune reactions. Acta biochimica Polonica (2010)'] ancestor: adrenal cortex 'All craniates have groups of cells homologous to the mammalian adrenocortical and chromaffin tissues (medulla), but they are scattered in and near the kidneys in fishes. (...) The cortical and chromaffin tissues come together to form adrenal glands in tetrapods.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.518 and Figure 15-9'] ancestor: fibroblast Fibroblast is the distinctive cell of the fibrous connective tissue, the most common connective tissue in vertebrates. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.177'] ancestor: neuron 'As any textbook tells, the 'first' nerves recognizable at a cellular level are found in cnidarians. This means that nerve cells evolved in the eumetazoan ancestor.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.96'] ancestor: Rohon-Beard neuron 'In vertebrates, the neural plate border region gives rise to the neural crest, cranial placodes and, in anamniotes, to Rohon-Beard sensory neurons.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn2703 'Holland LZ, Chordate roots of the vertebrate nervous system: expanding the molecular toolkit. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2009)'] ancestor: hematopoietic stem cell 'There is now good reason to believe that, in vertebrates and invertebrates alike, blood cell lineages diverge from a common type of progenitor cell, the hemocytoblast.(...) The bone marrow is the hematopoietic organ in all vertebrates but fishes, in which hematopoiesis occurs in the kidney (reference 1); In all gnathostomes there appear to be two main embryonic locations derived from the early mesoderm, both intra- and extraembryonic, which contribute to primitive and definitive hematopoiesis based upon their differential expression of SCL, Gata-1, Gata-2 and myeloblastosis oncogene (c-myb) (reference 2). ' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.22.010605.093317 'Hartenstein V, Blood cells and blood cell development in the animal kingdom. Annual review of cell and developmental biology (2006)', DOI:10.1111/j.1600-065X.1998.tb01264.x 'Hansen JD, Zapata AG, Lymphocyte development in fish and amphibians. Immunological Reviews (1998)'] ancestor: midgut loop epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: foregut-midgut junction epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: hyoid muscle 'Although the zebrafish occupies a rather derived phylogenetic position within actinopterygians and even within teleosts, with respect to the mandibular, hyoid and hypobranchial muscles it seems justified to consider it an appropriate representative of these two groups. Among these muscles, the three with clear homologues in tetrapods and the further three identified in sarcopterygian fish are particularly appropriate for comparisons of results between the actinopterygian zebrafish and the sarcopterygians.' [DOI:10.1186/1471-213X-8-24 'Diogo R, Hinits Y, Hughes SM, Development of mandibular, hyoid and hypobranchial muscles in the zebrafish: homologies and evolution of these muscles within bony fishes and tetrapods. BMC Developmental Biology (2008)'] ancestor: parietal pleura [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.193 and Figure 5.34'] ancestor: visceral pleura [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.193 and Figure 5.34'] ancestor: pleuropericardial canal [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: pericardio-peritoneal canal [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164 and Figure 4-32'] ancestor: pleuropericardial folds 'In hagfishes a transverse septum extends upward from the ventral body wall posterior to the heart, partly separating an anterior pericardial cavity from a larger peritoneal cavity. (...) These basic relationships have not been modified by urodeles. The small pericardial cavity remains far forward where it is separated by a transverse septum from the principal coelom, which may now be called a pleuroperitoneal cavity because slender lungs are present. (...) The heart [of other tetrapods] is separated from the lungs (and liver if present) by more or less horizontal partitions that have their origin in the embryo as folds on the serous membrane of the right and left lateral body walls. These grow out to join in the midline of the body. They are called lateral mesocardia (birds) or pleuropericardial membranes. Posteriorly they join the transverse septum to form the adult pericardial membrane, or pericardium. (...) In their partitioning of their coelom, embryonic mammals resemble first early fishes (incomplete partition, posterior to heart, consisting of the transverse septum) and then reptiles (pericardium derived from transverse septum and pleuropericardial membranes) Mammals then separate paired pleural cavities from the peritoneal cavity by a diaphragm. The ventral portion of this organ comes from the transverse septum. The dorsal portion is derived from the dorsal mesentery and from still another pair of outgrowths from the lateral body wall, the pleuroperitoneal membranes.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.205-206'] ancestor: pleuroperitoneal canal [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164 and Figure 4-32'] ancestor: hindgut epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: aorta 'When vertebrates first appeared, they must have possessed a ventral and dorsal aorta with aortic arches between them.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.620'] ancestor: outflow tract endothelium 'It is assumed that during evolution, a circulatory system composed of the heart and endothelial tubular system first formed in vertebrates, medial smooth muscle then appeared for regulation of the system, and innervation of the muscle tissue took place. This sequence of development assumed for phylogenesis is actually realized in the ontogenetic processes.' [DOI:10.1254/jjp.87.253 'Shigei T, Tsuru H, Ishikawa N, Yoshioka K, Absence of endothelium in invertebrate blood vessels: significance of endothelium and sympathetic nerve/medial smooth muscle in the vertebrate vascular system. Japanese Journal of Pharmacology (2001)'] ancestor: metanephric tubule 'The ureteric diverticulum grows dorsally into the posterior region of the nephric ridge. Here it enlarges and stimulates the growth of metanephric tubules that come to make up the metanephric kidney. The metanephros becomes the adult kidney of amniotes.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.543'] ancestor: parietal peritoneum [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: visceral peritoneum [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) Development of the coelomic cavity and mesenteries, p.159-164'] ancestor: myoblast 'It seems clear that the metazoan ancestor inherited from its unicellular descendants an actin cytoskeleton and motor-proteins of the myosin superfamily. Within metazoans, these two molecules were arranged into effective contractile units, the muscles. The basic trends for muscle evolution are already expressed in the diploblastic taxa.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.75'] ancestor: female germ cell 'The basic assumption is that primitive Metazoa already had germ cells, but no gonads to harbour them (reference 1); Gametes must have been present already in the metazoan ancestor, because they are present in every metazoan taxon (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1002/bies.950161213 'Denis H, A parallel between development and evolution: Germ cell recruitment by the gonads. BioEssays (1994)', ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.249'] ancestor: male germ cell 'The basic assumption is that primitive Metazoa already had germ cells, but no gonads to harbour them (reference 1); Gametes must have been present already in the metazoan ancestor, because they are present in every metazoan taxon (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1002/bies.950161213 'Denis H, A parallel between development and evolution: Germ cell recruitment by the gonads. BioEssays (1994)', ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.249'] ancestor: ciliated cell 'Cilia establish the vertebrate left-right (LR) axis and are integral to the development and function of the kidney, liver, and brain. Left-right asymmetry is established in the ciliated ventral node cells of the mouse. The chiral structure of the cilium provides a reference asymmetry to impose handed LR asymmetric development on the bilaterally symmetric vertebrate embryo. A ciliary mechanism of LR development is evolutionarily conserved, as ciliated organs essential to LR axis formation, called LR organizers, are found in other vertebrates, including rabbit, fish, and Xenopus.' [DOI:10.1016/S0070-2153(08)00806-5 'Basu B, Brueckner M, Cilia multifunctional organelles at the center of vertebrate left-right asymetry. Current topics in developmental biology (2008)'] ancestor: cell 'We have collected a set of 347 proteins that are found in eukaryotic cells but have no significant homology to proteins in Archaea and Bacteria. We call these proteins eukaryotic signature proteins (ESPs). The dominant hypothesis for the formation of the eukaryotic cell is that it is a fusion of an archaeon with a bacterium. If this hypothesis is accepted then the three cellular domains, Eukarya, Archaea, and Bacteria, would collapse into two cellular domains.' [DOI:10.1073/pnas.032658599 'Hartman H, Fedorov A, The origin of the eukaryotic cell: A genomic investigation. PNAS (2002)'] ancestor: germ cell 'The basic assumption is that primitive Metazoa already had germ cells, but no gonads to harbour them (reference 1); Gametes must have been present already in the metazoan ancestor, because they are present in every metazoan taxon (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1002/bies.950161213 'Denis H, A parallel between development and evolution: Germ cell recruitment by the gonads. BioEssays (1994)', ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.249'] ancestor: lymphocyte 'A new type of circulatory cell with the potential for self-renewal and clonal expansion appeared near the beginning of vertebrate radiation in the form of the long-lived lymphocyte. (...) Exactly when during evolution the lymphocytes appeared as a specialized type of immunocompetent cells is unknown, but cells comparable to the lymphocytes in jawed vertebrates have never been characterized in invertebrates. On the other hand, increasing evidence for bona fide lymphocytes in lamprey and hagfish suggests that lymphocytes must have evolved in the common ancestor of the vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090542 'Pancer Z, Cooper MD, The evolution of adaptive immunity. Annual Review of Immunology (2006)'] ancestor: ovary follicle 'Examination of different vertebrate species shows that the adult gonad is remarkably similar in its morphology across different phylogenetic classes. Surprisingly, however, the cellular and molecular programs employed to create similar organs are not evolutionarily conserved.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.cellbio.042308.13350 'DeFalco T, Capel B, Gonad morphogenesis in vertebrates: divergent means to a convergent end. Annual review of cell and developmental biology (2009)'] ancestor: epithelium rostral part duodenum [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: epithelium caudal part duodenum [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: foramen rotundum 'It is suggested that the mammalian lamina ascendens arose from an upgrowth of the root of the quadrate ramus of the epipterygoid in cynodonts, separating foramen rotundum from foramen ovale.' [PMID:1018003 'Presley R, Steel FLD, On the homology of the alisphenoid. Journal of Anatomy (1976)'] ancestor: diaphragm crus [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.193 and Figure 5.34'] ancestor: lamina terminalis Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: spinal cord sulcus limitans Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: larynx cartilage ' (In anura) a dorsal pair of arytenoid cartilages (...), which support vocal cords, and a ventral pair (often fused) of cricoid cartilage (...). These cartilages are regarded as derivatives of posterior visceral arches of ancestors. Together they constitute the larynx, a structure characteristic of tetrapods. (...) (In mammals) Paired arytenoid cartilages help support and control the vocal cords. The cricoid cartilage is single. Two additional cartilages are present that are lacking in other vertebrates: a large ventral thyroid cartilage (...) and a cartilage in the epiglottis.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.239-241'] ancestor: pylorus epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: temporal bone petrous part [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.256-258 and Figure 7-24'] ancestor: coronary artery [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.618-623'] ancestor: anterior commissure 'In all vertebrates the thin structure that connects the two halves of the telencephalon shows a ridge-like thickening at the basal side known as the anterior commissure.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1969.tb20432.x] ancestor: caecum Cecum is cited as a common feature to Bilateria. [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.205', ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.562-567 and Figure 17-4'] ancestor: temporal bone squamous part [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.246 and Figure 7-12'] ancestor: enameloid Origin of enamel predates the evolution of gnathostomes. [DOI:10.1002/jez.b.21090 'Donoghue PCJ, Sansom IJ, Downs JP, Early evolution of vertebrate skeletal tissues and cellular interactions, and the canalization of skeletal development. Journal of Experimental Zoology (Mol Dev Evol) (2006)'] ancestor: mesovarium [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) Chapter 6, Integument, p.560 and Figure 14.23 p.561'] ancestor: spiral organ of Corti 'The auditory hair cells in tetrapods are located in the inner ear in a structure known as the basilar papilla. In mammals this structure (along with some related structure) is called the organ of Corti.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.33'] ancestor: eye choroid [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.426-427 and Figure 12-28'] ancestor: metanephric distal convoluted tubule [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) Chapter 14, The urogenital system, p.538-540 and Figure 14.1(a)'] ancestor: metanephric proximal convoluted tubule [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) Chapter 14, The urogenital system, p.538-540 and Figure 14.1(a)'] ancestor: outer canthus [PMID:8270467 'Findlater GS, McDougall RD, Kaufman MH, Eyelid development, fusion and subsequent reopening in the mouse. J Anat (1993)'] ancestor: fovea Definition of fovea centralis should be considered here as 'an area centralis at the visual axis' (reference 1). There is an uncertaincy of the relation, because: 1.-'The fovea first appeared in evolution in the temporal retina of fishes. Then, in birds, the nasal fovea and bifoveal system with nasal and temporal foveas developed. The fovea disappeared in primitive mammals, and reappeared in primates. A residue of the fovea is conserved in the visual streak, and the disappearance and reappearance of the fovea, in primitive mammals and primates respectively, correlates with degeneration and restoration of cone pigment genes in photoreceptors (reference 2).' 2.-'Many retinal features (foveas, trichromacy, midget pathways and associated cell types) appear specific to primates. This has led to investigations in parallel with other mammalian models such as cat or rabbit. Correlation of the results often proves to be difficult, since an evolutionary scenario with transitions between the mammalian models is largely lacking (reference 3).' [DOI:10.1017/S095252380623342X 'Ahnelt PK, Schubert C, Kbber-Heiss A, Schiviz A, Anger E, Independent variation of retinal S and M cone photoreceptor topographies: A survey of four families of mammals. Visual neuroscience (2006)', PMID:11193946 'Azuma N, Molecular cell biology on morphogenesis of the fovea and evolution of the central vision. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi (2000)', DOI:10.1016/S1350-9462(00)00012-4 'Ahnelt PK, Kolb H, The mammalian photoreceptor mosaic-adaptive design. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research (2000)'] ancestor: substantia nigra ' (...) the substantia nigra first appears in reptiles and is best developed in primates.' [ISBN:978-0471090588 'Hildebrand M, Analysis of vertebrate structure (1983) p.336'] ancestor: lateral mamillary nucleus 'Anatomists divide the mammalian mammillary bodies into two groups of nuclei - medial and lateral nuclei (...) The volume of the lateral mammillary nucleus relative to the entire mammillary bodies remains relatively constant across many mammalian species.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn1299 'Vann SD, Aggleton JP, The mammillary bodies: two memory systems in one? Nature reviews, Neuroscience (2004)'] ancestor: tuberomamillary nucleus 'Both lateral and medial mammillary bodies are also innervated by the supramammillary nuclei, the tuberomammillary nucleus and the septal region. As far as can be determined, this overall pattern of connections, which has been most studied in the rat brain, is also found in the primate brain.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn1299 'Vann SD, Aggleton JP, The mammillary bodies: two memory systems in one? Nature reviews, Neuroscience (2004)'] ancestor: medial mamillary nucleus 'Anatomists divide the mammalian mammillary bodies into two groups of nuclei - medial and lateral nuclei (...) The volume of the lateral mammillary nucleus relative to the entire mammillary bodies remains relatively constant across many mammalian species.' [DOI:10.1038/nrn1299 'Vann SD, Aggleton JP, The mammillary bodies: two memory systems in one? Nature reviews, Neuroscience (2004)'] ancestor: nucleus gracilis 'In mammals the dorsal column is divided into two segments: a medial segment (fasciculus gracilis), which is present throughout the cord, and a lateral segment (fasciculus cuneatus), which is present only at the thoracic and cervical regions. The dorsal column nuclei are therefore also known as the nucleus gracilis and the nucleus cuneatus.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.150'] ancestor: dentine 'Dentine is a bona fide vertebrate novelty, and dentine-secreting odontoblasts represent a cell type that is exclusively derived from the neural crest.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01495.x 'Hall BK, Gillis JA, Incremental evolution of the neural crest, neural crest cells and neural crest-derived skeletal tissues. J Anat (2012)'] ancestor: lymph [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.627-628 and Figure 19-20'] ancestor: red nucleus 'A red nucleus is present in cartilaginous fishes, ray-finned fishes, lungfishes, amphibians, and amniotes and is thus plesiomorphic for jawed vertebrates.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB, Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.292'] ancestor: basal lamina 'A basal lamina is certainly present in Bilateria and was evaluated as an autapomorphy of this taxon.' [ISBN:978-0198566694 'Schmidt-Rhaesa A, The evolution of organ systems (2007) p.57'] ancestor: cuneate nucleus 'In mammals the dorsal column is divided into two segments: a medial segment (fasciculus gracilis), which is present throughout the cord, and a lateral segment (fasciculus cuneatus), which is present only at the thoracic and cervical regions. The dorsal column nuclei are therefore also known as the nucleus gracilis and the nucleus cuneatus.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.150'] ancestor: nucleus ambiguus 'Nucleus ambiguous in mammals controls muscles of the vocal organ (the larynx).' [DOI:10.1196/annals.1298.038 'Jarvis ED, Learned birdsong and the neurobiology of human language. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2004)'] ancestor: cerebellar cortex Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: cerebellum anterior lobe Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: claustrum 'A claustrum might have been present in ancestral mammals and lost in the monotreme clade, or it might have been gained at the origin of therian mammals.' [DOI:10.1159/000066698 'Butler AB, Molnr Z, Manger PR, Apparent absence of claustrum in monotremes: implications for forebrain evolution in amniotes. Brain, Behavior and Evolution (2002)'] ancestor: corpus callosum 'In addition to the anterior commissure, placental mammals have a phylogenetically new forebrain commissure, the corpus callosum, which primarily interconnects the neocortex of the cerebral hemispheres.' [DOI:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1969.tb20447.x 'Ebner FF, A comparison of primitive forebrain organization in metatherian and eutherian mammals. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (1969)'] ancestor: eye globe [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.426-427 and Figure 12-28'] ancestor: spinal cord lateral column Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: spinal cord ventral column Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: spinal cord dorsal column Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: hematopoietic system 'Zebrafish developmental hematopoiesis shows close correspondence to the development of the mammalian hematopoietic system and is regulated by conserved molecular pathways.' [DOI:10.1016/j.coph.2010.05.004 'Ellett F, Lieschke GJ, Zebrafish as a model for vertebrate hematopoiesis. Current Opinion in Pharmacology (2010)'] ancestor: olfactory tubercle An olfactory tubercle was already present in the ancestor of mammals. [DOI:10.1016/0166-2236(95)93932-N 'Northcutt RG, Kaas JH, The emergence and evolution of mammalian neocortex. Trends in Neurosciences (1995) Figure 3'] ancestor: inferior olive 'The inferior olive appears to be present in all vertebrate classes and is particularly well developed in species with a well-developed cerebellum.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.256'] ancestor: midgut epithelium [PMID:21669855 'Leys SP, Nichols SA, Adams EDM, Epithelia and integration in sponges. Integrative and Comparative Biology (2009)'] ancestor: zygomatic bone - infraorbital 3 ' (...) and the infraorbital bone 3 of advanced actinopterygians (is homologous) with the jugal bone of sarcopterygians.' [ISBN:978-3899370805 'Arratia G, Schultze HP, Wilson MVH, Mesozoic Fishes 4 - Homology and Phylogeny (2008) p.23-48'] ancestor: cerebral hemisphere 'The presence of paired evaginated hemispheres and olfactory bulbs in both agnathan and gnathostome radiations suggests that such hemispheres were also present in the common ancestor.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.ne.04.030181.001505 'Northcutt RG, Evolution of the telencephalon in nonmammals. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. (1981)'] ancestor: podocyte - nephrocyte 'Here we show that the insect nephrocyte has remarkable anatomical, molecular and functional similarity to the glomerular podocyte, a cell in the vertebrate kidney that forms the main size-selective barrier as blood is ultrafiltered to make urine. In particular, both cell types possess a specialized filtration diaphragm, known as the slit diaphragm in podocytes or the nephrocyte diaphragm in nephrocytes. We find that fly (Drosophila melanogaster) orthologues of the major constituents of the slit diaphragm, including nephrin, NEPH1 (also known as KIRREL), CD2AP, ZO-1 (TJP1) and podocin, are expressed in the nephrocyte and form a complex of interacting proteins that closely mirrors the vertebrate slit diaphragm complex. Furthermore, we find that the nephrocyte diaphragm is completely lost in flies lacking the orthologues of nephrin or NEPH1 - a phenotype resembling loss of the slit diaphragm in the absence of either nephrin (as in human congenital nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type, NPHS1) or NEPH1. These changes markedly impair filtration function in the nephrocyte. The similarities we describe between invertebrate nephrocytes and vertebrate podocytes provide evidence suggesting that the two cell types are evolutionarily related, and establish the nephrocyte as a simple model in which to study podocyte biology and podocyte-associated diseases.' [DOI:10.1038/nature07526 'Weavers H, Prieto-Sanchez S, Grawe F, Garcia-Lopez A, Artero R, Wilsch-Bruninger M, Ruiz-Gomez M, Skaer H, Denholm B, The insect nephrocyte is a podocyte-like cell with filtration slit diaphragm. Nature (2009)'] ancestor: cardiac mesoderm Although bird and mammal hearts arose independently from different groups of reptilian ancestor, vertebrate heart is commonly considered arising from fishes and then defined as an historical homology relationship. However uncertainty remains on the origin of the heart substructures and tissues. [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.481'] ancestor: head 'Vertebrate evolution has been characterized by a fresh and vast array of cranial structures that collectively form the head.' [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.82'] ancestor: dermatocranium Origin of a dermal skeleton predates the evolution of gnathostomes. [DOI:10.1002/jemt.10217 'Donoghue PCJ, Sansom IJ, Origin and early evolution of vertebrate skeletonization. Microscopy reasearch and technique (2002)'] ancestor: appendicular skeleton Origin of an appendicular skeleton predates the evolution of gnathostomes. [DOI:10.1002/jemt.10217 'Donoghue PCJ, Sansom IJ, Origin and early evolution of vertebrate skeletonization. Microscopy reasearch and technique (2002)'] ancestor: vertebra neural arch ' (...) certain common components [of vertebral structure] are found in nearly all vertebrate. A representative vertebra has a vertebral arch or neural arch, which extends dorsally around the spinal cord.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.270'] ancestor: exocoelomic cavity [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.144-146 and Figure 4-18'] ancestor: sensory system 'An early step in the evolution of neural crest, therefore, may have been the origin of a specific dorsal neural cell population contributing to sensory processing; this would predate the divergence of the amphioxus and vertebrate lineages.' [DOI:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4449 'Shimeld SM and Holland PW. Vertebrate innovations. PNAS (2000)'] ancestor: otolith organ 'In fishes, as in other vertebrates, the vestibular end-organs are divided into a gravity receptor system, with three subdivisions and an angular acceleration receptor system. The gravity receptor system on each side consists of utricular, saccular, and lagenar maculae, each covered by an otolith (reference 1); (...)considerations have led to our rethinking issues related to the origin of several aspects of vertebrate hearing, and to the view that many basic auditory functions evolved very early in vertebrate history, and that the functions observed in more `advanced' vertebrates, such as birds and mammals, are frequently modifications of themes first encountered in fishes, and perhaps even more ancestral animals (reference 2).' [PMID:11581521 'Moorman SJ, Development of sensory systems in zebrafish (Danio rerio). ILAR Journal (2001)', DOI:10.1016/S0378-5955(00)00168-4 'Fay RR, Popper AN, Evolution of hearing in vertebrates: the inner ears and processing. Hearing research (2000)'] ancestor: dorsal lateral line 'The mechanosensory lateral line system is widely distributed in aquatic anamniotes. It was apparently present in the earliest vertebrates, as it has been identified in agnathans, cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, lungfishes, the crossopterygian Latimeria, and aquatic amphibians.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB and Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.195'] ancestor: pigment cell 'The skin of all vertebrates, except albinos, contains pigments of various types within cells collectively known as chromatophores. Chromatophores are of neural crest origin. They lie in the upper part of the dermis in fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, but they penetrate or are located in the epidermis in birds and mammals. When the pigment is a dark melanin, the cells are called melanophores.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.210'] ancestor: melanophore 'The skin of all vertebrates, except albinos, contains pigments of various types within cells collectively known as chromatophores. Chromatophores are of neural crest origin. They lie in the upper part of the dermis in fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, but they penetrate or are located in the epidermis in birds and mammals. When the pigment is a dark melanin, the cells are called melanophores.' [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.210'] ancestor: periderm [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) Chapter 6, Integument, p.209 and Figure 6-1'] ancestor: basal ganglia 'All nuclei of the mammalian basal ganglia are also present in the oldest vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1016/j.cub.2011.05.001 'Stephenson-Jones M, Samuelsson E, Ericsson J, Robertson B, Grillner S, Evolutionary conservation of the basal ganglia as a common vertebrate mechanism for action selection. Current Biology (2011)'] ancestor: natural killer cell 'A new type of circulatory cell with the potential for self-renewal and clonal expansion appeared near the beginning of vertebrate radiation in the form of the long-lived lymphocyte. (...) Exactly when during evolution the lymphocytes appeared as a specialized type of immunocompetent cells is unknown, but cells comparable to the lymphocytes in jawed vertebrates have never been characterized in invertebrates. On the other hand, increasing evidence for bona fide lymphocytes in lamprey and hagfish suggests that lymphocytes must have evolved in the common ancestor of the vertebrates.' [DOI:10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090542 'Pancer Z, Cooper MD, The evolution of adaptive immunity. Annual Review of Immunology (2006)'] ancestor: fastigial nucleus 'One or more deep cerebellar nuclei appear in agnathans, sharks, ropefishes, lungfishes, Latimeria, and amphibians. Reptiles have two nuclei (a medial and a lateral), and birds and mammals have three nuclei (a medial, a lateral, and an interposed nucleus). The medial nucleus of mammals is known as the fastigial nucleus, and the lateral nucleus is known as the dentate nucleus.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB, Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.260-261'] ancestor: dentate nucleus 'One or more deep cerebellar nuclei appear in agnathans, sharks, ropefishes, lungfishes, Latimeria, and amphibians. Reptiles have two nuclei (a medial and a lateral), and birds and mammals have three nuclei (a medial, a lateral, and an interposed nucleus). The medial nucleus of mammals is known as the fastigial nucleus, and the lateral nucleus is known as the dentate nucleus.' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB, Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.260-261'] ancestor: nucleus isthmi 'Nucleus isthmi is present in the isthmus in most vertebrates. It is called the parabigeminal nucleus in mammals (reference 1); In sum, our results show that the origin of neurons of some tegmental hindbrain nuclei, namely, nucleus isthmi/superior reticular nucleus and secondary gustatory/viscerosensory nucleus is in the URL (upper rhombic lip), and that the temporal order of cell types produced by the URL and their developmental program are conserved among vertebrate species (reference 2).' [ISBN:978-0471210054 'Butler AB, Hodos W, Comparative vertebrate neuroanatomy: Evolution and Adaptation (2005) p.272', DOI:10.1002/cne.22364 'Volkmann K, Chen YY, Harris MP, Wullimann MF, Kster RW, The zebrafish cerebellar upper rhombic lip generates tegmental hindbrain nuclei by long-distance migration in an evolutionary conserved manner. The Journal of Comparative Neurology (2010)'] ancestor: tooth 'The ancestor of recent vertebrate teeth was a tooth-like structure on the outer body surface of jawless fishes.' [PMID:19266065 'Koussoulakou DS, Margaritis LH, Koussoulakos SL, A curriculum vitae of teeth: evolution, generation, regeneration. International Journal of Biological Sciences (2009)'] ancestor: yolk 'The majority of animals develop from a spherical egg with a single axis, the animal-vegetal (an-veg) axis. The animal half of the egg usually contains the nucleus of the oocyte, while the vegetal half of the egg is the preferred site for the storage of yolk. Eggs with an-veg polarity are considered ancestral for the vertebrates (reference 1); In zebrafish (Danio rerio), meroblastic cleavages generate an embryo in which blastomeres cover the animal pole of a large yolk cell (reference 2).' [DOI:10.1016/S0925-4773(98)00226-3 'Arendt D, Nubler-Jung K, Rearranging gastrulation in the name of yolk: evolution of gastrulation in yolk-rich amniote eggs. Mechanism of Development (1999)', PMID:7956824 'Solnica-Krezel L, Driever W, Microtubule arrays of the zebrafish yolk cell: organization and function during epiboly. Development (1994)'] ancestor: vein 'The appearance of Chordata and subsequently the vertebrates is accompanied by a rapid structural diversification of this primitive linear heart: looping, unidirectional circulation, an enclosed vasculature, and the conduction system.' [DOI:10.1196/annals.1341.002 'Bishopric NH, Evolution of the heart from bacteria to man. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2006)'] ancestor: upper lip In the Jon Mallatt's reconstructed model, the upper lips were well developed in the jawless common ancestor of all living vertebrates. [DOI:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1996.tb01658.x 'Mallatt J, Ventilation and the origin of jawed vertebrates: a new mouth. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society (1996)', ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) Box essay 13.1 and Box figure I, p.502-503'] ancestor: rectum Rectum is cited as a common feature to Bilateria (reference 1). However the rectal diverticulum in Xenopus is a cloacal outgrowth that extand anteriorly and meet with the nephric duct (reference 2). [ISBN:978-0030259821 'Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD, Invertebrate zoology: a functional evolutionary approach (2003) p.205', ISBN:978-0127224411 'Vize PD, Woolf AS,Bard JBL, The kidney: From normal development to congenital disease (2003) p.57'] ancestor: forelimb - pectoral fin 'While the skeletons of teleost pectoral fins and tetrapod forelimbs are homologous at the level of endoskeletal radials, teleosts and tetrapods do not share homologous skeletal elements at the level of 'individuated' pro-, meso-, and metapterygia. Among osteichthyans, only basal actinopterygians retain the full complement of elements present in non-osteichthyan gnathostomes.' [DOI:10.1002/jmor.10264 'Davis MC, Shubin NH, Force A, Pectoral fin and girdle development in the basal actinopterygians Polyodon spathula and Acipenser transmontanus. Journal of Morphology (2004)'] ancestor: forelimb - pectoral fin bud 'While the skeletons of teleost pectoral fins and tetrapod forelimbs are homologous at the level of endoskeletal radials, teleosts and tetrapods do not share homologous skeletal elements at the level of 'individuated' pro-, meso-, and metapterygia. Among osteichthyans, only basal actinopterygians retain the full complement of elements present in non-osteichthyan gnathostomes.' [DOI:10.1002/jmor.10264 'Davis MC, Shubin NH, Force A, Pectoral fin and girdle development in the basal actinopterygians Polyodon spathula and Acipenser transmontanus. Journal of Morphology (2004)'] ancestor: ventricular system choroid fissure Holland LZ, October 7th 2010 in Lausanne (zholland@ucsd.edu) ancestor: arteriole [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.604-606'] ancestor: white matter 'The myelination of axons by glial cells was the last major step in the evolution of cells in the vertebrate nervous system, and white-matter tracts are key to the architecture of the mammalian brain.' [DOI:10.1038/nature09614 'Nave KA, Myelination and support of axonal integrity by glia. Nature (2010)'] ancestor: venule [ISBN:978-0030223693 'Liem KF, Bemis WE, Walker WF, Grande L, Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective (2001) p.604-606'] ancestor: embryo [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.197-198 and Figure 5.38'] ancestor: grey matter [ISBN:978-0072528305 'Kardong KV, Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution (2006) p.639-643 and Figure 16.27'] ancestor: lateral - ventral habenular nucleus Zebrafish habenula (synonym habenular nucleus) divides into dorsal/ventral habenula, while mammalian habenula divides into medial/lateral habenula. The zebrafish ventral habenula is a homolog of the mammalian lateral habenula. [DOI:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3690-09.2010 'Amo R, Aizawa H, Takahoko M, Kobayashi M, Takahashi R, Aoki T, Okamoto H, Identification of the Zebrafish ventral habenula as a homolog of the mammalian lateral habenula. The Journal of Neuroscience (2010)'] ancestor: stomodeum 'Molecular and developmental cell lineage data suggest that the acoel mouth opening is homologous to the mouth of protostomes and deuterostomes and that the last common ancestor of the Bilateria (the 'urbilaterian') had only this single digestive opening.' [DOI:10.1038/nature07309 'Hejnol A, Martindale MQ, Acoel development indicates the independent evolution of the bilaterian mouth and anus. Nature (2008)']